Gorun_adrian Grupurile de Interes Şi

8/11/2019 Gorun_adrian Grupurile de Interes i

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Analele Universitii Constantin Brncui din Trgu Jiu, Seria Litere i tiine Sociale, Nr. 1/2009

Annals of the Constantin Brncui University of Trgu Jiu, Letters and Social Sciences Series, Issue 1/2009

7

GRUPURILE DE INTERES I

PLURALISMUL

Prof.univ.dr. Adrian Gorun

Universitatea Constantin Brncui din Tg-Jiu

AbstractGrupurile de interese sunt o parte a

sistemelor politice actuale i poate una dintre celemai emblematice pentru mutaiile care s-au petrecut

n ultimele decenii. A le scoate acum de pe scenapolitic, dup ce au cptat un asemenea rol, esteimposibil. Ce s-ar putea face, credem, c n btlia

puterii, la care participinerent i aceste grupuri, srmnconsacrate doar regulile democratice (). ncomplicatul joc al forelor politice, grupurile de

presiune, cu activismul lor debordant, cu mijloacelelor de lupt, lipsite de cele mai multe ori de scrupule,cu caracterul punctual al aciunilor, sunt maidegrab un element perturbator, disolutiv, dectunul agregativ, coeziv, sprijinitor al interesului

supragrupal.D. Lepdatu

Cuvinte cheie: grupuri de interes, sisteme politice,participare politica.

Grupuri i micri

Premisa 1. Participarea politic nupoate viza, n exclusivitate, activitileindividuale, separate, orientate spre a

influena, prin vot (i alte mijloace)modalitatea de comportare a guvernanilor ideciziile referitoare la politicile publice.

Premisa 2. Participarea politicconvenionali heterodoxnu acopertoateformele de participare.

Consecin: Pe lng participareaindividual (i consecinele ei) n politicamodern constituit din organizaii iexercitat de ctre ele analiza participriitrebuie s cuprind i obiectivarea ei la

nivelul grupurilor. Apare un nou imperativ

GROUPS OF INTEREST AND

PLURALISM

Prof. PhD Adrian Gorun

Constantin Brncui University of Trgu-Jiu

AbstractGroups of interests are a part of current

polit ical systems and maybe one of the mostrepresentative for the mutations in the last few

decades. To take them out the political stage now,after they have acquired such a role, is impossible.What can be done, in the battle for power, to whichthese groups also take part in, is to preserve onlydemocratic regulations (). In the complicate gameof political forces, pressure groups, with theiroverflowing activism, with their battle means,lacking scruples most of the time, with actions

punctual character, are rather a perturbing,dissolutive element than an aggregate, cohesive,

supporting one for the subgroup interest.

D. Lepdatu

Key words: interest groups, politicalsystems, political participation.

Groups and movements

Premise 1. Political participationcannot exclusively refer to individual,separated activities oriented towardsinfluencing by vote (and other means) the

way in which governing parties behave orthe decisions regarding public policies.

Premise 2. Conventional andheterodox political participation does notcover all the forms of participation.

Consequence: Apart from individualparticipation (and its consequences) inmodern policy established inorganizations and exercised by them

participation analysis has to include itsobjectification at the level of groups. There


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pentru coala politic modern, coala cepreia i dezvoltafirmaia lui A. Tocquevillen privina importanei asocierii n grupuri

pentru realizarea democraiei.

Afirmaia lui A. Tocqueville are odublimportan:a. Considerarea i analiza politicii

moderne drept competiie (o ntlnire ntregrupuri concureniale);

b. Fenomenele de asociere politic(partide, grupuri de interes, micricolective) reprezint locuri i instrumentede participare politic. n cadrul lor seexprimdiferite forme de participare i, prinele, indivizii cautsinflueneze deciziile i

decidenii, alegerile fcute i selecia celorcare urmeaz a fi propui pentru acelealegeri.

Micrile cunosc o expansiunesemnificativ ncepnd cu micarea numitconvenional aizeci i opt, ele semanifest sub forma unor revendicri,

proteste, manifestaii.Att grupurile, ct i micrile

influeneaz comportamentele politice,

politicile publice, precum i oportunitilepolitice.

1. Grupurile de interese.

Definiie, caracteristici, tipuriGrupurile de interese reprezintunul

dintre cele mai interesante fenomene alesocietii contemporane. J. Meynaudconsideractivitatea de presiune o activitateuniversal. Consideraia privind coordonatauniversala acestui tip de activitate trebuiereinterpretatn sensul c:

-

Formele presiunii antice sau cele din alteepoci nu sunt semnificative;

- Presiunea politic realizatprin instituiispecifice este o coordonat a epociiactuale, prezentnd importana prinefectele sale;

- Studiul teoretic al grupurilor se impunen momentul n care fenomenul politic al

presiunii se evideniaz ,,ca adevratinstituie care desfoar o activitate

politic organizat, vizibil, eficace1

is a new imperative for modern politicalschool that takes over and develops A.Tocquevilles statement on the importanceof association in groups for achieving

democracy.A. Tocquevilles statement is ofdouble importance:

c. Considering and analyzing modernpolicy as a competition(a meeting betweencompeting groups);

d. Political association phenomena(parties, groups of interest, collectivemovements) are political participation

places and instruments. Various forms ofparticipation develop within them and

individuals seek to influence decisions anddecision makers, choices made and theselections of those that shall be proposedfor those elections.

Movements undergo asignificant extension beginning with theconventionally called movement Sixtyeight, under the form of claims, protests,manifestations.

Both groups and movements

influence political behaviors, publicpolicies and political opportunities.

1. Groups of interests.

Definition, characteristics, types

Groups of interests are one of themost interesting phenomena of thecontemporary society. J. Meynaudconsiders the activity of pressure as anuniversal activity. The consideration on theuniversal coordinate of this type of activityhas to be reinterpreted as follows:

-

The forms of ancient pressure or theones from other ages are not significant;

- The political pressure through specificinstitutions is a feature of current age,with significance through its effects;

- The theoretical study of groups isestablished as a real institutiondeveloping an organized, visible,efficient political activity7 (the

phenomenon that identifies at thebeginning of the 20th century, when


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(fenomenul ce identific la nceputulsecolului al XX-lea, moment din careatt fenomenul ct i conceptul ilrgesc aria de influen).

Grupurile de presiune suntsupuse azi att multiplicrii, ct idiversificrii existnd:

- sindicate muncitoreti sau poteniale;- micri feministe;- organizaii ale marilor investitori;- diverse asociaii care au ca obiect

iniiative sociale variate;- micri pentru protecia mediului- micri ale tinerilor;

-

asociaii ale intelectualilor;- grupuri pentru protecia familiei iplanificare familial;

- asociaii cu scop caritabil sau pentrueradicarea srciei.

Not : Toate aceste grupuri potaciona i ca grupuri de presiune. Arthur Bentley introduce un

nou unghi n abordarea problematiciigrupurilor: deplasarea accentului dinspreinstituiile juridice ctre procesele politice

(de la normele abstracte ctre laturainformala politicii).

Definire

Premis : existena unei distinciiprimare ntre grupul depresiunei grupul deinteres, cel de presiune fiind subinclusgrupului de interes.

Constatare: Existena maimultor ncercri de definire a acestor grupuride condiie politicspecial.

Astfel:grupul de presiune este prezentat

drept un grup social determinat cu un gradvariabil de formalitate, care caut s

promoveze i/sau s apere intereselespecifice ale membrilor si prin exercitareaunei presiuni asupra puterii politice sauadministraiei (apud Mica enciclopedie de

politologie, Editura tiinific iEnciclopedic, Bucureti, 1977, p. 217);

both the phenomenon and the conceptenlarge their area of influence).

Groups of pressure undergomultiplication and diversification

nowadays, existing:- Employees or potential syndicates;- Feminist movements;- Organizations of great investors;- Various associations with social

initiatives;- Environment protection movements- Youth movements;- Scholars movements;- Groups for family protection and family

planning;- Charity associations or for fightingagainst poverty.

Note: All these groups can act aspressure groups.

Arthur Bentley introduces anew angle in approaching the matter ofgroups: moving the accent from juridicalinstitutions to political processes (fromabstract regulations to the informal side of

politics).

Definition

Premise: the primary distinctionbetween thepressure group and the interestgroup, the pressure group being sub-included to the group of interest.

Conclusion: The existence ofseveral trials to define these groups withspecial political status.

Therefore:

The pressure group is described as asocial determined group with a variabledegree of formality, that seeks to promoteand/or defend the specific interests of itsmembers by exercising a pressure upon the

political power or administration (accordingto Small Political Science Encyclopedia,Bucharest, 1977, p. 217);

The group of pressure is anorganization established to defend interestsand exercise pressure on the political power


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grupul de presiune reprezint oorganizaie constituit pentru aprareaintereselor i exercitarea unei presiuniasupra puterii politice cu scopul de a obine

de la aceasta decizii conforme intereselor(apud R.G. Schwartzenberg);grupul de presiune este grupul cu un

grad relativ de organizare (evident)neoficial, care urmrete influenareadirect sau indirect a activitii

parlamentare i guvernamentale n direciapropriilor sale interese (apud S. Tama,Dicionar politic);

grupul de interese reprezint unansamblu de indivizi care, n virtutea unor

interese comune (materiale, morale,profesionale etc.) se organizeaz ntr-unanumit grad cu scopul de a reprezenta, aprai promova aceste interese n viaa politic,economic, social, i cultural (Dicionar

politic).De reinut: - dreptul la existen al

grupurilor de interes a fost recunoscut multmai trziu dect instituionalizarea partidelor

politice, iar interesele, la origini, nu suntnemijlocit politice, ci economice,

profesionale, morale, de gen, religioase etc.Ele devin relevante pentru sfera politiculuitocmai prin exercitarea influenei (care, nunele cazuri se poate manifesta ca presiune)asupra instituiilor politice, personalitilor

politice, deciziilor politice etc.;dezvoltarea studiului grupului de

interes se realizeaz n contextul teoriilorpluraliste care, precum A. Bentley,deplaseaz accentul n analiz de la

aspectele instituionale i juridice, ctrefenomenul politic; perspectiva a avut succesndeosebi n sfera anglo-saxon, dar mai ales(i n mod specific) n SUA unde analizaempiric a grupurilor s-a confundat repedecu perspectiva teoretica pluralismului i afundamentat existena, funcionarea ireproducerea regimurilor democratice;

termenul de grup de presiune esteutilizat iniial de David Truman n,,Procesul Guvernrii; ulterior, n SUA,

pentru definirea grupurilor ce se implic n

in order to get decisions complying withinterests from it (according to R.G.Schwartzenberg);

The group of pressure is the group

with a relative degree of unofficialorganization (obvious), that seeks todirectly or indirectly influence the

parliamentarian and government activity forits own interests (according to S. Tama,Dicionar politic);

The group of interests is a group ofindividuals, by virtue of common interests(material, moral, professional etc.) isorganized in a certain extent in order torepresent, defend and promote these

interests in the political, economic, socialand cultural life (Political Dictionary).

Note: - groups of interests right ofexistence was admitted much later that theinstitutionalization of political parties, andinterests, at their origins, are not political,

but economic, professional, moral, genustype, religious etc. They become relevantfor the range of political matters byexercising influence (which, in some casescan develop under pressure) on politicalinstitutions, political personalities, politicaldecisions etc.;

The development of the group ofinterest is made in the context of pluralisttheories which, like A. Bentley, move theaccent of analysis from institutional and

juridical aspects to the politicalphenomenon; the perspective has beensuccessful especially in the Anglo-Saxonsphere but especially (and specifically) in

the USA where the empirical analysis ofgroups has rapidly been mistaken for thetheoretical perspective of pluralism andgrounded the existence, operation andreproduction of democratic regimes;

The term group of pressure isinitially used by David Truman in ,,TheProcess of Government; later in USA fordefining groups involved in the political

process which do not have the role andstatus of political parties). The term group

of interest is preferred (from the need to


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procesul politic (dar care nu au rolul istatutul partidelor politice) se prefertermenul de grup de interes (din nevoiaevitrii conotaiilor negative ale termenului);

geneza grupurilor(instituii politice)const n rezultatul corelaiilor specifice pecare cele dou instituii fundamentale alesocietii moderne statul i partidele

politice le-au dezvoltat: evoluia statului ipartidelor politice ca instituii politicefundamentale ,,a dezvoltat un important grupde funcii i efecte, care s-au implicat adncn viaa social, iar grupurile (de interes, de

presiune) sunt o reacie la semnalele apruten spaiul politic instituionalizat, un rspuns

la impactul activitilor pe care le-adezvoltat politicul n realitatea modern.

n sintez apariia grupurilor de

interes/presiune reprezint un rezultat alextinderii unor funcii ale instituiilor

politice considerate fundamentale n epocamodern; grupurile preiau alte iniiative

publice care le pot aduce rezolvri ale unorinterese proprii: ,,Atunci cnd statului i s-auadugat activiti care erau, de fapt, tentativede soluionare a dificultilor sociale saucondiii de optimizare a conducerii sociale,au aprut i s-au dezvoltat aceste grupuri.Ele sunt probabil, imaginea cea mai vie, anoilor stri ale sistemului social i politic.Atunci cnd se ncearc armonizareadificilelor procese economice, n perioada detranzacie spre o societate informaional,ntr-un moment cnd guvernarea ncearcsdetermine un anume curs al evenimentelor

interne i internaionale cnd convulsiilesociale nu au ncetat, apar cu necesitateaceste grupuri care ncearc s dobndeascavantaje particularedin asemenea iniiative.Cnd societatea politic reacioneaz pentrua pstra prin msuri adecvate echilibrulsocial, cnd se ncearc protecia anumitorcomponente ale societii, se creeaz, ca oreacie imediat, grupuri care preiau pridin aceste iniiative publice, care, eventual,le-ar folosi. Cnd statul i propune s

garanteze activiti cu profil strategic pentru

avoid negative connotations of the term);Groups origin (political institutions)

is the result of specific correlations that thetwo fundamental institutions of modern

society state and political parties havedeveloped: the evolution of state andpolitical parties as fundamental politicalinstitutions has developed an importantgroup of functions and effects deeply insocial life, and groups (of interest,

pressure) are a reaction to signals occurredin the institutionalized political space, ananswer to the impact of activities that

political matters have developed in modernreality.

In synthesis the occurrence of interest/ pressure

groups is a result of extending somefunctions of political institutions consideredfundamental in modern age; grousp takeover public initiatives that can solve

personal interests: When activities wereadded to the state, that were actuallyattempts to solve social difficulties oroptimization conditions of socialmanagement, these groups appeared anddeveloped. They are probably the mostaccurate image, of the new states of thesocial and political system. Whenharmonization of difficult economic

processes it attempted, during the transitionperiod towards an informational society, ina moment when the government is trying todetermine a certain course of internal andinternational events, when socialconvulsions have not ceased yet, these

groups necessarily appear trying to acquireparticular advantages from such initiatives.When the political society reacts in order tomaintain through adequate measures social balance, when it is tries to maintain

protection of certain parts of the society, asan immediate reaction, groups occur thattake over parts of these public initiatives,that could serve them. When the state wantsto guarantee strategic activities for thesociety (that preserve national security,

military production, energetic production,


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societate (care conserv securitateanaional, producia militar, cea energetic,a cilor ferate, cercetarea tiinific,

protecia social, utilizarea ct mai raional

a forei de munc, etc )atunci cao oportunitate, o activitate de presiunepolitic. De aceea, n ultimele decenii, cele50000 de grupuri de interes care existdoarn capitala SUA, face ca aceastea s fieimplicate n toate marile decizii de caredepinde evoluia societii2;

- modificrile n cadrulproceselor politice au generat schimbri nsfera relaiilor de putere (fenomen resimit nmai toate statele modernizate nu doar n

SUA). Presiunea exercitat de grupurile deinteres dobndete treptat gradul politicasemntor celui specific partidelor politice,urmare a unor fenomene precum:

reconstrucia continu a echilibruluiputerilor ;

schimbri la nivelul mijloacelor itehnicilor aciunii politice;

transformri ale strategiilor imijloacelor tactice de aciune politic.

Rezultatul acestor fenomene se exprimprin ncercarea grupurilor de a dobndiprevalen ca instituii politice, tentativconsiderat de unii teoreticieni (D.Lpdatu) ,,cea mai important mutare

politicdin existena contemporan.Tentativa trebuie privit cu

circumspecie din perspectiva unor rezultatebenefice: ,,Efectul grupului de presiune nueste neaprat un trend care aduce ap lamoar sistemului politic pluralist de azi, i

nici o direcie izvort din creterea roluluisocietii civile3. ndoiala asupra unuiaspect benefic se origineaz n aspecte

precum:- diferenele de interese i structur

a acestor entiti;- diferenele de finaliti;- metodele de aciune ntre grupuri;- marea diversitate a grupurilor,

diversitate datde contextul din fiecare ar,de modalitatea n care grupurile s

speculeze prin obieciunile lor oportunitile

railways, scientific research, socialprotection, reasonable use of manpower, etc) then a political pressure activity appearsas an opportunity. This is why, for the last

few decades, the 50000 groups of interestthat exist only in USA capital city, makethem be involved in all the great decisionsthat the evolution of society depends on8;

- Alterations within politicalprocesses have generated changes in therange of power relations (phenomenon feltin all modernized states, not just in theUSA). The pressure exercised by the groupsof interest gradually acquires the politicaldegree similar to the one specific to

political parties, due to phenomena like:Continuous reconstruction of powers

balance;Alterations at the level of political

action means and techniques;Transformations of tactic strategies

and means of political actions.The result of these phenomena is

expressed through the groups trial toacquire prevalence as political institutions,which is considered by some theoreticians(D. Lpdatu) ,the most significant

political movement in the contemporaryexistence.

The attempt has to be looked at withcircumspection from the view of some

benefic results: The effect of the pressuregroup is not necessarily a trend encouragingtodays pluralist political system nor adirection resulted from the growth of civilsociety9. The doubt of a beneficial aspect

originates in aspects like:- These entities differences of interestand structure;

- Differences of finalities;- Methods of action between groups;

- The great diversity of groups,given by the context in every country, bythe way in which groups tospeculated various opportunities throughtheir objections.

There is a risk caused by

pressure groups upon democracy and social


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la fel de diverse.Exist un risc pe care-l

provoac grupurile de presiune asuprademocraiei i optimizrii sociale, mai ales

n condiiile n care ele au devenit o, iaraciunile lor nu se suprapun peste interesulgeneral al unei societi sau peste ateptrilemajoritii absolute a unei comuniti.

Analiza grupurilor i definirealor trebuie ssurprind:- Gradul de organizare i stabilitate;- Modalitile de aprare i promovare a

intereselor;- Diferenele ntre grupurile de interese i

grupurile de presiune;- Sensul presiunii politice.n opinia lui D. Lpdatu (care sintetizeazovast bibliografie n domeniu), din punct devedere conceptual, grupul de presiune poatefi reprezentat prin reunirea a cel puin treielemente: I organizarea; II aprarea(protecia) sau promovarea unor interese; IIIexercitarea unor presiuni politice supusunor finaliti speciale.

Funcie de aceste elemente potfi sintetizate o serie de observaii. Astfel:

I Organizarea, ca asociere a indivizilorn grupuri, spontan, neprogramat, efemer,urmare a existenei n plan social a unoraciuni diferite n funcie de care oamenii seasociaz sau, dimpotriv, se despart. Totuiasocierea n grupuri de interes realizat ntemeiul unor obiective durabile conduce laorganizaii veritabile dar i acest tip deorganizare este mai lax dect organizarea

proprie structurrii altor instituii, instituiin care expresia instituionalizata activitiiare rigiditatea birocratic a organizriistatale sau cea proprie partidelor. Caracterulmai lax al organizrii grupale se datoreaz:

- Particularitii intereselorpromovate;

- Poziiei grupurilor;- Caracterului marginal al

grupurilor.Gabriel Almond i Bingham Powel

clasific grupurile de interese n funcie de

optimization, especially considering thatthey have become an , and their actions donu superpose over the general interest of a

society or over the expectations of theabsolute majority of a community.Groups analysis and

definition has to include:- The organization and stability degree;- Methods to defend and promote

interests;- Differences between groups of interests

and groups of pressure;- Meaning of political pressure.

In D. Lpdatus opinion (who synthesizesa large bibliography in the field), fromconceptual point of view, the pressuregroup can be represented by reuniting atleast three elements: I organization; IIdefense (protection) or interests promotion;III exercise of political pressure withspecial finalities.

Depending on these elementscertain observations can be synthesized.Therefore:

I Organization, as spontaneous,unscheduled, passing association ofindividuals into groups, due to the existenceof various actions at social level accordingto which people are associated or, on thecontrary separate. Still, the association ingroups of interest made on durableobjectives leads to veritable organizations

but this type of organization is laxer thanthe proper organization of other institutions

structure, where the institutionalizedexpression of activity has the bureaucraticroughness of state organization or specificto parties. The laxer character of stateorganization is due to:

- Particularity of promotedinterests;

- Position of groups;- Marginal character of groups.Gabriel Almond and Bingham Powel

classify groups of interests according to

certain levels of socialization and


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anumite niveluri de socializare i organizarei de modalitile generale de articulare aintereselor (modalitile n care membriiunei comuniti i exprim cererile,

preferinele i exigenele) celor care deinputerea. Astfel, ei susin existena a patruforme generale de articulare a intereselorcare corespund celor patru tipuri de interese:

a. articularea anomic(grupuri anomice);b. articularea neasociativ (grupuri

informale non-asociative);c. articularea instituional (grupuri

instituionale, formale);d. articulare asociativ (grupuri

asociative, voluntare).

Detalieri:Grupurile de interese anomice sunt

formaiuni aparent spontane, efemere,adesea violente cazul manifestrilor saumicrilor. Ele se constituie n dousituaii:

- cnd interesele indivizilorsunt relativ noi i ei nu dispun de mijloaceleexperimentate prin care sse manifeste;

- cnd cei care dein puterea le

eludeaz repetat exigenele i le neglijeazpreferinele. Cei ce au acest tip de intereserecurg la forme anomice de articulare:demonstraii, rscoale, jafuri, asasinate.Grupurile anomice sunt asociate ca regul

premodernitii, ns sunt implicate i npolitica contemporann mod substanial (ncontextul participrii neconvenionale,sporadice i heterodoxe, ele constituie unelement indispensabil, care se alturformelor de participare mai consolidate).

Grupurile de interese non-asociativereprezintgrupuri informale, intermitente inon-voluntare, caracterizate prindiscontinuitate n organizare. Suntcondiionate de interese regionale, perifericesau religioase, de apartenene primare sauoriginare, legate de religie, factorul etnic,

proveniena din punct de vedere geografic,legturi familiale; apartenenele evideniaz

potenialele interese asemntoare sau ,,cel

puin pot constitui bazele pe care astfel de

organization and on the general ways ofarticulating interests (the ways in which themembers of a community express theirdemands, preferences and exigencies) to the

ones holding the power. Therefore, theysupport the existence of four general formsof articulation of interests corresponding tothe four types of interests:e. Anomic articulation (anomic groups);f. Non-associative articulation (non-

associative informal groups);g. Institutional articulation (institutional,

formal groups);h. Associative articulation (associative,

volunteer groups).

Details:

Anomic interests groups areapparently spontaneous, transient,sometimes violent forms - the case ofmanifestations or movements. They consistin two cases:

- When individuals interestsare relatively new and do not haveexperimented means to develop;

-

When the ones holding powerrepeatedly elude their exigencies andneglect their preferences. The ones with thistype of interests chose anomic forms ofarticulation: demonstrations, riots,robberies, assassinates.Anomic groups areassociated as a rule to pre-modernity,

but they are substantially involved in thecontemporary policy (in the context ofunconventional, sporadic and heterodox

participation, they are an indispensableelement, that joins the more consolidatedforms of participation).

Non-associative groups of interest

are informal, intermittent and non-volunteergroups, characterized by discontinuity inorganization. They are conditioned byregional, peripheral or religious interests,

primary or original appurtenances, relatedto religion, ethic factor, origin from

geographic point of view, familial relations;


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asemnri reuesc s se fondeze i s seconsolideze, mai ales ntr-o faz deimobilizare social, cnd vechile legturiofergarania unei anumite sigurane ntr-un

proces de transformare accelerat idistructiv4.Grupurile instituionale, ca

organizaii formale cuprind i alte funciidect articularea intereselor limitate i uneledintre ele exced condiia de grup de presiune

politic n sensul ei clasic: ,,n toatesocietile se constituie organizaii cu ooarecare stabilitate, ai cror membrii suntunii, de-a lungul timpului, printr-ocomuniune de interese. Indiferent dac este

vorba de membrii unei confesiuni religioasesau de nobili de curte, de militari sau de

birocrai, organizaiile respective auinteresul s le conserve prerogativele, s leapere privilegiile n cadrul unor instituii

puternice i durabile5.Exemplificri: partide, adunri,

administraii, armate, biserici(cu meniuneacpartidele au finaliti, organizare, tehnicide aciune, sisteme de valori de un alt nivel).

Importana acestor grupuri este n

cretere ntruct:- sfera politic se structureaz n jurul

modelelor de funcionare consolidate;

- procesele de birocratizare sunt nascensiune i se manifestinevitabil.

Grupurile de interese asociativesuntorganizaii voluntare i specializate narticularea intereselor plurale, pluralitategeneratde procesele de modernizare, dar i

de diversificarea i fragmentarea social.Exemple: sindicatele, grupurileoamenilor de afaceri, asociaiile etnice saureligioase, grupurile civice, ligile regionalei locale etc.

Au ca valorizarea exigenelor si

preferinele propriilor membri; Almond iPowel prezint aceste grupuri princaracteristici precum reprezentarea explicita intereselor, profesionalizarea personalului,

appurtenances reveal similar potentialinterests or at least they can establish the

bases that such similarities manage to bebased and consolidate on, especially in a

phase of social immobilization, when theold connections offer the guarantee of acertain safety in an accelerated anddestructive transformation process10.

Institutional groups, as formalorganizations include other functions apartfrom the articulation of limited interests andsome of them exceed the condition of

political pressure group in its classicalmeaning: ,All societies establishorganizations with a certain stability, whose

members are united in time by acommunion of interests. Whether there isabout the members of a religious confessionor court nobles, militaries or bureaucrats,organizations are interested to preservetheir prerogatives, to defend their

privielgies within powerful and durableinstitutions11.

Exemplifications: parties,assemblies, administrations, armies,churches (with the mention that parties

have finalities, organization, actiontechniques, values systems of anotherlevel).

The importance of these groups isgrowing, because:- The political range is structured around

consolidated operation patterns;

- Bureaucratization processes aregrowing in inevitable.

Associative groups of interests arevolunteer groups specializaed inarticulating plural interests, pluralitygenerated by modernization processes, andsocial diversification and fragmentation.

Examples: syndicates, groups ofbusiness people, ethnic or religiousassociations, civic groups, regional andlocal leagues Example: syndicates etc.

They have of valuing the exigencies and


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proceduri organizate, organizare social,capacitate de protecie n raporturile cu altegrupuri, tactici i obiective, de regul,recunoscute ca legitime n societate.

Reprezentnd o gam vast de grupuri iinterese, pot s limiteze influena altorgrupuri de interese, reale sau poteniale i aautoreprezentrii.

II. Observaii privind aprarea ipromovarea intereselor de ctre/i pringrupurile de presiune vizeaz:

a). extensia conceptului de grup deinteres (sensul cel mai larg al termenului):intervalul politic are modaliti multiple deexprimare, urmnd obiective legate doar n

ultima instan, de coninutul puterii.Coninutul intereselor care coalizeazacesteagregri grupale este de ordine diferite,material, morale, sociale, religioase, etnice,dar ndeosebi politice. Extensia intereselornecesitextensia congresului;

b) existena unor ambiguiti:distincia n privina proteciei i promovriiintereselor nu opereaz ntotdeauna cuclaritate.

De remarcat: Exist posibilitatea

unei simbioze a celor dou direcii deaciune. Imaginea generala acestor grupuride presiune este astfel complex, dificil de

promovat n valori stricte, n obiectivedihotomice. Aceast neclaritate, cultivatvoluntar, adaug i mai mult la condiiaspeciala acestor grupuri de presiune. Ele iorienteaz, dup oportuniti, finalitile,scpnd astfel, de multe ori, de sub controlulfactorilor de decizie politic.

(D. Lpdatu)III. Observaiile privind exercitarea

unei presiuni asupra puterii politice vizeazndeosebi aspectul cfinalitatea presiuniieste corelat unei opiuni politice. n acesttemei, formulm (n consonan cu aliautori) concluzia: nu orice grup de interesese transformn grup de presiune politic.n situaia n care grupul de interese i

propune i urmrete un astfel de transfer,

grupul i modific inevitabil condiia,

preferences of their own members; Almondand Powel describe these groups throughcharacteristics like the explicitrepresentation of interests, personnel

professionalization, organized procedures,social organization, protection capacity inrelations to other groups, tactics andobjectives, admitted as legitimate in thesociety. Being a large range of groups andinterests, they can limit the influence ofother groups of interests, real or potentialand of representation.

II. Observations regarding thedefense and promotion of interests by andthrough pressure groups refer to:

a). extension of the concept ofinterest group (the broadest meaning of theterm): political interval has multiple waysof expression, following only objectivesconnected to the content of power. Thecontent of interests joining these groupaggregations is of various orders, material,moral, social, religious, ethnical butespecially political. Interests extensionneeds the extension of congress;

b) existence of ambiguities:

distinction regarding interests protectionand promotion does not always operateclearly.

Notice: There is the possibility fora symbiosis of the two directions of action.The general image of these groups of

pressure is therefore complex, difficult topromote in strict values, in dichotomyobjectives. This unclarity, voluntarilycultivated adds more to the specialcondition of these pressure groups. Theyorient their finalities, according toopportunities, thus escaping the control of

political decision factors.

(D. Lpdatu)III. The observations on the exercise

of a pressure upon the political power,mainly refers to the aspect that the finalityof pressure is correlated to a political

choice. Based on this, we draw-up along

with other authors) the conclusion: not any


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devenind instituie politic. n contextulconexiunilor politicului n viaa social,concomitent cu vieiisociale termenii de grup de interese i de

grup de presiune devin aproape sinonimi.Aceasta presupune c orice grup de interespoate deveni (potenialitatea) un gruppolitic de interes, un grup activ, cu aciunespecializat.

Consecin: cea mai mare parte aacestor grupuri sunt sau devin grupuri de

presiune, participnd indirect, la lupta pentruputere, dobndind valori specifice unuiasemenea tip de presiune.

Transferul grupului de interes n grup

de presiune: grupul de interes devine grupde presiune cnd, sub impulsul interesului,mai mult sau mai puin contientizat,exercit o presiune asupra puterii politice(considerat fie global, fie prin unul dintreorganele sale) direct sau indirect.

(O. Trsnea, Probleme de sociologiepolitic)

Caracteristica prin care semanifest categoria de presiune politic

propriu-ziseste datde aspectul specializatal acestei activiti, aspect realizat prin:

- articularea corecta intereselor;- subordonarea activitilor la finaliti

precise;- rigoarea obiectivelor strict

ntemeiate;- caracterul ordonat al aciunilor.

Vectorul presiuni are coerenaconexiunilor inverse, ceea ce genereazgrade diferite de autonomie a grupurilor.

Aceasta presupune ca:-

presiunea pe care o exercitgrupurilespecifice, n condiiile existenei sistemului

politic i a corelaiilor sale, nu rmneunivoc(ca sens);

- urmnd logica raporturilor sociale,grupurile de presiune suport, la rndul lor,

presiunea organismelor instituionale;- grupurile de presiune sunt ele nsele

expresia unui complex joc de fore n careele reprezintdoar o parte a acestui joc;

-

autonomia grupurilor este relativ.

group of interests is transformed in a

political pressure group. If the group ofinterests proposes and follows such atransfer, the group inevitably alters its

condition, becoming political institution.Within the context of political matters insocial life, along with ofsocial life, the terms group of interests andgroup of pressure become almostsynonymous. This supposes that any groupof interest can become (potentiality) a

political group of interest, an active group,with specialized action.

Consequence: the greatest part ofthese groups are or become pressure

groups, indirectly taking part in the fight forpower, acquiring specific values for such apressure type.

The transfer of the interest groupinto pressure group: the interest group

becomes pressure group when, under theimpulse of interest, more or lessacknowledged, directly or indirectlyexercises a pressure on the political power(considered at global level, or through oneof its bodies).

(O. Trsnea, Political SociologyMatters)

The characteristic of theactual political pressure category is given

by the specialized aspect of this activity,through:

- Correct articulation of interests;- Activities subordination to precise

finalities;- Strictly grounded objectives;

-

Actions ordered character.Pressure vector has the coherence ofreverse connections that generate variousdegrees of groups autonomy. This supposesthat:

- The pressure exercised by specificgroups, under the conditions of politicalsystem and its correlations is not univocal(as meaning);

- Following the logic of social reports,pressure groups undergo, in their turn, the

pressure of institutional authorities;


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Conceptul de grup de presiune funcie de modalitatea n care este definit,cuprinde i alte reprezentri, definiiaangajnd i alte elemente majore.

Astfel:a) definiia lui J. Tourmon puneaccent pe trei elemente:- caracterul asociativ

(adeziunea la un grup i minima organizarepresupusde asociere);

- caracterul promoional(urmrirea unui anume scop);

- caracterul politic (dei grupulnu are, n sine,caracter politic, totuiaciunea sa are i obiective politice).6

Distincie: finalitatea politicexpres, prezentnd interes obiectivele cuncrctur politic evident, nu obiectivelede ordin general (grupurile de presiune seorienteaz categoric spre finaliti caremodeleazsau influeneazaciunea politica puterii);

b) definiia lui J Meynaud, careevideniaz tot trei elemente cecaracterizeazconceptul:

- legturile stabile ninterrelaiile dintre membrii ceaparin grupului;

- sentimentul apartenenei lacolectivitatea respectiv;

- comunitatea de el, organizat,care deficienn aciune.c) Definiiile ce pun accent pe

compararea direct a grupurilor de presiunecu grupul politic al partidului. n distinciarezultat din comparare trebuie susinut c,

spre deosebire de partide, n disputa politicpentru influenarea puterii i a opiunilor,grupurile de presiune nu numesc candidaicare s le promoveze interesele careprezentani politici (dac grupurile de

presiune ar recurge la un astfel de demersmodelator n mod nemijlocit, s-ar transforman partide politice). Faptul cunele grupurii propulseaz liderii prin intermediulnscrierii lor pe listele unor partide politice(fenomenul ca transfer de

loialitate) nu schimbfondul problemei.

- Pressure groups themselves are theexpression of a complex game of forceswhere they are only a part of the game;

- Groups autonomy is relative.

The concept of pressuregroup depending on the way in which it isdefined, includes other representations aswell, the definition engaging other majorelements.

Therefore:d) J. Tourmons definition puts

accent on three elements:- associative character

(accession to a group and minimumorganization supposed by association);

-

promotional character(pursuing a certain goal);

- political character (althoughthe group does not actually have a politicalcharacter, still, its action has politicalobjectives).12

Distinction: the express politicalfinality, with interest from the obvious

political objectives and not from generalones (pressure groups are undoubtedlyoriented towards finalities that model orinfluence the political action of power);

e) J Meynauds definition,revealing three elements that characterizethe concept:

- Stable connections in interrelationsbetween the members belonging to thegroup;

- The feeling of appurtenance to thatcollectivity;

- The organized community of goal

that gives efficiency in action.f)

Definitions focusing on thedirect comparison of pressure groups withthe political group of the party. In thedistinction resulted from the comparison wehave to support that, unlike parties, in the

political dispute for the influence of powerand options, pressure groups do not appointcandidates that would promote theirinterests as political representatives (if

pressure groups chose such a directly

modeled activity they would turn into


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2. Lobby i lobbyng

este analizat

i de Pasquino, ns el pune accent pefuncia ei la nivelul sistemului politic;presiunea este consideratdrept modalitateaclasic de aciune a grupurilor cu un rolesenial: rolul de martor de control, n sensulc certifictrecerea de la ungrup de persoane unite printr-un interescomun la un grup care caut s influenezealegerile politice i decidenii. este elementul ce asigurdevenirea unuigrup n grup de presiune, factorul ce

obiectiveaz interesul comun n aciuniprin care se influeneazdeciziile politice.

n limbajul anglo-saxon , grupul depresiune este definit (ca) lobby, care indicsediile (culoarele, saloanele, antecamerele

parlamentare, slile pentru relaiile cupublicul ale unor cldiri) n care se ntlnescparlamentarii, birocraii, oamenii de afaceri,consultanii politico-economici etc. n acestelocuri se exercit i, uneori este chiarmonopolizat activitatea de lobbying dectre grupuri de interese active din punct devedere politic.

Eficiena aciunii grupurilorde presiune, ca i nivelul lor de recunoatere,acceptare i apreciere depind de gradul lorde adecvare la normele culturale generaleale societii ce la conine, norme ce pot iele varia.

R. Rose prezint ase tipuri deraporturi eseniale dintre grupuri i

cultura politic:1) armonia ntre cererile grupurilor depresiune i normele culturalegenerale;

2) creterea progresiv a gradului deacceptabilitate a valorilor politice susinute

prin cererile grupurilor de presiune;3) negocierea, cu susinere oscilantdin

sectorul normelor culturale;4) afiarea indiferenei culturale;5) afiarea tendinelor culturale ale unei

ndelungate perioade de schimbare;

political parties). The fact that some groupsput their leaders on the lists of politicalparties ( the phenomenon of astransfer of loyalty) does not change the

background of the problem.

2. Lobby and lobbying

is alsoanalyzed by Pasquino, but he refers mostlyto its function at the level of the politicalsystem; pressure is considered the classicalaction way of essential groups: the role ofcontrol witness, in the meaning that certifies the passing from a

group of united persons by a mutual interestto a group seeking to influence politicalchoices and deciding parties. is the element providing a groups

becoming into a pressure group, the factorobjectifying the common interest into

actions that influence political decisions.In Anglo-Saxon language the

pressure group is defined as lobby, whichindicate the head offices (halls, saloons,

parliamentarian antechambers, rooms forthe public in some buildings) where

parliamentarians, bureaucrats, businessmen, political and economic consultantsmeet etc. In these places the lobbyingactivity is exercised and sometimes evenmonopolized by politically active groups ofinterests.

The efficiency of pressuregroups action, as well as theiracknowledgement, acceptance and

appreciation level depend on theiradequacy degree to the general culturalregulations of the society that includesthem and that can be different.

R. Rose describes six types ofessential relations between groupsandpolitical culture:

7) Harmony between the requirementsof pressure groups and generalcultural regulations;

8) Progressive growth of the

acceptability degree of political matters


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6) conflictul ntre valorile culturale iobiectivele grupurilor de presiune.

Referitor la eficienamodalitilor prin care grupurile activeaz

pentru influenarea puterii politice, trebuieprecizat c ansele de succes suntdependente de raionalitatea alegeriiresurselor, canalelor de comunicare i

formelor de presiune.Analiza activitii grupurilor de

presiune ofer posibilitatea reconstituiriiproceselor decizionale, avnd, n acelaitimp, indicii i asupra:

- grupurilor care exercit presiuneapolitic;

-

politicilor publice supuse exercitriipresiunii;

- gradului de influen (rezultatulobinut).G. Pasquino enumer resurselegrupului:

a) dimensiunea memberschip-ului(numrul celor nscrii);

b) reprezentativitatea;c) resursele financiare disponibile;d) calitatea i amploarea cunotinelor

folosite;e) integrarea n procesul productiv i

activitile sociale.Pentru situaia de ,succesul unui grup de presiune este facilitatde o form de (prin ), sintagm ceevideniazproveniena comuna liderilor imembrilor grupului cu cea a decidenilor(toi aparin acelorai straturi sociale) caz

semnificativ pentru un spectru politicnormal, afinitatea sindicatelor muncitoreticu partidele de stnga.

supported by the demands of pressuregroups;

9)Negotiation with oscillating supportfrom cultural regulations;

10)

Display of cultural indifference;11)Display of cultural trends of a longperiod of change;

12)Conflict between cultural values andobjectives of pressure groups.

Regarding the efficacy of theways through which groups activate forinfluencing political power, we have tomention that the chances of success dependon the rationality of choosing theresources, channels of communication and

forms of pressure.The analysis of the pressure groups

activity gives the possibility to reconstructdecisional processes, having, at the sametime, indices upon:

- Groups exercising political pressure;- Public policies undergoing pressure;- Degree of influence (outcome).

G. Pasquino lists the resources of thegroup:

f) The size of membership (the numberof the ones registered);

g) Representativeness;h) Available financial resources;i) Quality and extent of knowledge

used;j) Integration in the productive process

and social activities.For the case of , thesuccess of a pressure group is facilitated bya form of

(through ), which reveals thecommon origin of leaders and members ofthe group to the one of deciding parties (allof them belong to the same social layers) significant case for a normal politicalspectrum, employees syndicates affinitywith left side parties.

Rolul resurselor n succesul aciunilorResurse Semnificaie Rol/grupuri tipice

Dimensiunea

grupului de

Numrul

persoanelor ce

- valorificare direct: influenarea rezultatelor

electorale prin votul acordat unuia sau mai multor


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presiune compun grupul candidai, precum i partidelor politice;- valorificarea indirect: ameninarea cuneacceptarea anumitor decizii greite; oferta de

bani pentru diferite activiti pro sau contra

decidenilor; - sindicatele -Reprezentativit

ateaGrad de

acceptare/legitimare

Consolideazdimensiunea

Resurselefinanciare

Putere deinfluen

- utilizare direct, n mod deliberat, transparent,cu efect incisiv, imediat(ex. pentru a subvenionacampania electoral a candidailor i partidelor

politice preferate, pentru publicitate n presa scrissau radio i televiziune)- utilizare indirect, netransparent, pe o perioad

limitat (ex. pentru promovarea unui climat deopinie favorabil intereselor asociaiilor respective

prin mass-media, pentru obinerea unorcompetene legale de decideni, pentrudemascarea coruperii unor decideni);

Resursereferitoare lacalitatea iamploareacunotinelorfolosite

grupului = ocompetiie ntredeintoriiinformaieicalificate:decidenii ireprezentaniigrupurilor de

presiune;este necesar ireprezentanilorcetenilor(cetenii au odubl calitate: de

contribuabili iconsumatori)pentru nelegereasensului deciziei.

Cunotinele tehnice de un nivel nalt specificedomeniului asigur grupurilor de presiune

posibilitatea de a genera o nclinare a balaneideciziei ctre propriile interese. n general,informaia este , ea avnd caintenionalitate mai mult s influeneze opiniile,dect s ofere toate elementele necesare uneidecizii care s respecte toate interesele ndomeniu.Transparena este unica garanie n proceseledecizionale situaie opus: informaia expuseste inferioar din punct de vedere cantitativ icalitativ informaiei ascunse.Succesul aciunilor este dependent de

transparen, iar aceasta poate fi garantat dactoate interesele aflate n joc au posibilitatea de a

se mobiliza n orice stadiu al procesuluidecizional

Integrarea nprocesulproductiv i naciunilesociale

agrupului

Poate suplini deficitul la nivelul celorlaltecategorii de resurse. Exemplu, controlorii de zborcare pot paraliza traficul ntr-un aeroport sau ar;impiegaii de micare ce pot paraliza traficulferoviar; funcionarii din finane ce pot paralizaacordarea salariilor bugetarilor; al funcionarilordin primrii ce pot paraliza relaia cu publicul; al

muncitorilor din salubritate care pot face


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imposibil traiul ntr-o localitate; cel alprofesorilor, care pot boicota examenele de an sauexamenele finale; cel al funcionarilor publici care

pot paraliza activitatea la nivelul autoritilor

locale

The role of resources in the success of the actionsResources Meaning Role/typical groupsSize of the pressuregroup

Number of people in thegroup

- direct valuing: influencingelectoral results through the votegiven to one or more candidates,as well as to political parties;- indirect valuing: threaten of notaccepting certain wrong decisions;offering money for activities for or

against deciding parties;- syndicates -

Representativeness Degree of acceptance/legitimacy

Consolidates the size

Financial resources Power of influence - direct, deliberate, transparent usewith incisive, immediate effect(e.g. in order to fund the electoralcampaign of candidates and

political parties it supports, foradvertising in written press orradio and TV)- indirect, non-transparent usefor a limited period (e.g. for

promoting an opinion climatefavourable to the interests ofassociations through mass-media,for getting legal competences bydeciding parties, for unmaskingthe corruption of some deciding

parties);Resources regarding

the quality and extentof resources used

of the

group = a competitionbetween holders ofqualified information:deciding parties andrepresentatives of

pressure groups; isnecessary forrepresentatives ofcitizens (citizens have adouble quality: taxpayers

and consumers) for

High technical knowledge

specific to the field providepressure groups the possibility togenerate an inclination of the

balance of the decision towards itsown interests. In general,information is , itintends to influence opinions,rather than offer all the elementsnecessary to a decision that wouldcomply with all the interests in thefield.

Transparency is the only


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understanding themeaning of the decision.

guarantee in decisional processes opposite case: information isinferior from quantitative point ofview and qualitative of hidden

information.The success of actions depends ontransparency, but it can beguaranteed if all the interests havethe possibility to be mobilized inany stage of the decisional process

Integration onproductive process andsocial actions

of the group

It can replace the lack at the levelof other categories of resources.For example, flight controllers thatcan paralyze traffic in an airport orcountry; traffic controllers than

can paralyze railway traffic;finances officials that can paralyzewages to employees; officials incity halls that can paralyze therelation to the public; employeesin the salubrity field that can makeit impossible to live in a place; thatof professors that can boycottyearly or final exams; that of

public officials that can paralyzethe activity at the level of localauthorities

Unele grupuri seautodeclar purttoare de interesegenerale (paradox). Asemenea interese

propagate pot genera orientarea spredezordine n politica de presiune: n

politica de presiune grupurile pot alegecontient calea crerii unor stri de

dezordine intolerabile n comunitate(profitnd de perioade propice exemplu: organizarea unor festiviti;semnificativ este studiul de caz asuprafenomenului ).Strategia autodeclarrii intereselor degrup drept interese generale, genereaz,n multe situaii fie eecuri, fie

Some groups proclaimthemselves as bearers of general interests(paradox). Such propagated interests cangenerate orientation towards disorder inthe pressure policy: in the pressure

policy, groups can consciously choose tocreate some intolerable disorder states in

the community (taking advantage ofadequate periods example: organizingfestivities; it is significant in this casethe study on the phenomenon). The strategy ofself-proclamation of group interests intogeneral interests, generates in manycases, either failures, either negative

1G.Pasquino,op.cit.pp.9394


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repercusiuni negative asupra legitimitiiaciunii, chiar asupra existenei grupului,ntruct aciunile prin care se exercit

presiunea n numele unui interes general

sunt tot mai puin acceptate.Important: Reaciile teoretice i

practice mpotriva activitilor grupurilorde presiune scot n eviden intereselespeciale ale acestora, chiar dac ele seautodeclar purttoarele intereselorgenerale. Reacia mpotriva specialinterests a fost foarte dur n MareaBritanie i S.U.A., fiind atacate ndeosebisindicatele i diferitele configuraii de

grupuri de presiune formate n juruldistribuirii beneficiilor sociale (welfare).1G. Pasquino identific doutipuri de reacii teoretice:

- Reacia ce poate fi numit neo-conservatoare, care aduce vechi obieciila politica grupurilor nelese nu ca nitecanale de organizare i de exprimare acomplexitii democraiei, ci i ca odiafragm ntre ceteni i guvernani, ca

obstacol n calea dobndirii bineluicomun i ca instrument pentru realizareaintereselor particulare.

- Reacia de pe poziii neo-progresiste, n sens larg, care la fel cacea neo-conservatoare critic versiuneadominant a pluralismului care facelegtura ntre libera competiie dintregrupuri i democratizarea sistemului

politic.n primul tip de reacie cel neo-

conservatori se ncadreaz studiile luiMancur Olson care a formulat (G.Pasquino).

Demersul lui Olson pornete de lavolumul su clasic Logica aciuniicolective i, n baza unor analize

repercussions upon the legitimacy of theaction, even upon the existence of thegroup, because the actions of the pressureon behalf of a general interest are more

and more accepted.Important: Theoretical and

practical reactions against pressuregroups activities reveal their specialinterests, even if they self-proclaim as

bearers of general interests. The reactionagainst special interestswas very hard inGreat Britain and USA, attackingespecially syndicates and variousconfigurations of pressure groups formed

around the distribution of welfarebenefits.2G. Pasquino identifies two typesof theoretic reactions:

- The reaction that can be calledneo-conservatoire , that brings up oldobjections to the policy of the groupsunderstood not as channels oforganization and expression ofdemocracy complexity, but as a

diaphragm between citizens andgovernors, as an obstacle in the way ofachieving common welfare and as a toolfor achieving private interests.

- The reaction on neo-progressistpositions, in a broad sense, like the new-conservatory one criticizes the dominantversion of pluralism that makes theconnection between the free completion

between groups and democratization ofthe political system.

The first type of reaction theneo-conservatory one includes MancurOlsons studies that formulated (G. Pasquino).

Olsons theory starts from its

2G.Pasquino,op.cit.pp.9394


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comparative, evideniaz dificultile deorganizare a grupurilor ce susininteresele generale, raportate la grupurilece urmresc interese mai bine definite i

delimitate. Acest demers este finalizatprin n Creterea i declinulnaiunilor.

Teoria lui Olson combate, nprimul rnd, ipoteza conform creiabinele comun ,demontnd politica grupurilor de interese

subordonate unor aa-numite interesegenerale.

ntruct aciunea grupurilor nueste mereu funcional pentru democraie(uneori poate s aduc i s conserveavantaje pentru unele grupuri organizate,n dauna cetenilor mai puin organizaii mai puin organizabili), Olson susinenecesitatea unei aciuni asuprarigiditii socialepe care o presupun attgrupurile mici, coezive i particulare, dari coaliiile distributive, mari ieterogene; aciunea asupra rigiditiiimplic diminuarea coaliiilordistributive i ,(att n cazul S.U.A., ct i n cazul MariiBritanii, politicile lui Ronald Reagan iMargaret Thatcher au fost orientate, nmod concret, pe o astfel de direc iedubl).

Reaciile de pe poziiile neo-progresiste sunt explicate prin modelulneo-corporatismului, modelul detectat de

Philippe Schmitter ca model de raporturintre organizaii i stat. Dei teoretizarealui Schmitter este orientat ndeosebictre nelegerea modalitilor de policy-making n rile guvernate de partide destnga (laburiste, social-democrate,socialiste) i ctre explicarea raporturilordintre partidul de guvernmnt, sindicatei asociaii antreprenoriale n elaborarea

celor mai importante politici publice,

classical book Collective ActionLogics and, based on some comparativeanalyses, it reveals the difficulties oforganization supporting general interests,

reported to the groups that follow betterdefined and delimited interests. Thisaction is completed through in Growing and decline of nations.

Olsons theory cancels first of allthe hypothesis according to which,common welfare , dividing the policy of interestsgroups subordinated to so called generalinterests.

Because the action of the groups isnot always functional for democracy(sometimes can bring and preserveadvantages for some organized groups, tothe detriment of less organized citizens),Olson supports the need for an action onsocial roughness supposed both bysmall, cohesive and particular groups and

by big and heterogeneous distributivecoalitions; action upon rigidity involvesthe decrease of distributive coalitions and, (both in the case ofUSA and in the case of Great Britain, asRonald Reagan and Margaret Thatchers

policies have been oriented towards sucha double direction).

Reactions from neo-progressistpositions are explained through themodel of neo-corporatism, detected by

Phil ippe Schmitter as model of relationsbetween organizations and state.Although Schmitters theory is orientedespecially towards the understanding ofthe ways of policy-making in countriesgoverned by left side parties (labourist,social-democrat, socialist) and towardsexplaining the relations between thegoverning party, syndicates andentrepreneurial associations in

elaborating the most important public


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surprindem, alturi de G. Pasquino,meritul acestei teoretizri: acela de aorienta atenia ctre natura specific a

grupurilor i ctre modalitile de

participare intern.

policies, we notice along with G.Pasquino, the merits of this theory: thatof directing attention towards the

specific nature of groups and internal

participation ways.

1Dumitru Lepdatu, Procese i fenomene politice, Editura Actami Bucureti, 2000, p. 2602 Idem, p. 26,3 Idem, p. 2624 G. Pasquino, Curs de tiinpolitic, p. 865 Idem, p. 876J. Tourmon, Groupe de presion, n La Grande Encyclopedie, Libraire Larousse, Paris, 1974, vol. 9, pp. 5660-56617Dumitru Lepdatu, Procese i fenomene politice, Editura Actami Bucureti, 2000, p. 2608 Idem, p. 26,9 Idem, p. 26210 G. Pasquino, Curs de tiinpolitic, p. 8611 Idem, p. 8712J. Tourmon, Groupe de presion, n La Grande Encyclopedie, Libraire Larousse, Paris, 1974, vol. 9, pp. 5660-5661

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