CUPRINS Prefaţă ................................................................................................ 7 UNIT 1 PHYSICS ………………………………………………… Revision of tenses UNIT 2 NEWTON’S CONTRIBUTION TO DYNAMICS ….......... The Plural of Nouns (I) UNIT 3 TELESCOPES ..................................................................... The Plural of Nouns (II) UNIT 4 ATOMIC PHYSICS ............................................................ The Genitive Case UNIT 5 THE REVOLUTION IN LIGHT I ...................................... The Adjective UNIT 6 THE REVOLUTION IN LIGHT II .................................... The Adverb UNIT 7 THE PHENOMENA OF NATURE ................................... The Numeral UNIT 8 THE MYSTERIOUS FOURTH STATE OF MATTER ... The Sequence of Tenses UNIT 9 MAGNETISM ................................................................... The Passive Voice UNIT 10NUCLEAR WEAPONS ................................................... Modal Verbs UNIT 11 HOW GRAVITY AFFECTS PHOTONS ...................... If Clauses UNIT 12 A CENTURY OF DISCOVERIES IN PHYSICS I .......... The Infinitive UNIT 13 A CENTURY OF DISCOVERIES IN PHYSICS II ......... The gerund The ”ING” Participle UNIT 14CONTRIBUTION OF PHYSICS TO THE I NFORMATION AGE I ................................................................................. The Article UNIT 15CONTRIBUTION OF PHYSICS TO THE I NFORMATION AGE II …………………………………………………… Direct/Indirect (Reported) Speech List of Irregular Verbs ...................................................................... Bibliografie ........................................................................................
UNIT 1 PHYSICS …………………………………………………Revision of tenses
UNIT 2 NEWTON’S CONTRIBUTION TO DYNAMICS …..........The Plural of Nouns (I)
UNIT 3 TELESCOPES .....................................................................The Plural of Nouns (II)
UNIT 4 ATOMIC PHYSICS ............................................................The Genitive Case
UNIT 5 THE REVOLUTION IN LIGHT I ......................................The AdjectiveUNIT 6 THE REVOLUTION IN LIGHT II ....................................
The AdverbUNIT 7 THE PHENOMENA OF NATURE ...................................
The NumeralUNIT 8 THE MYSTERIOUS FOURTH STATE OF MATTER ...
The Sequence of TensesUNIT 9 MAGNETISM ...................................................................
The Passive VoiceUNIT 10 NUCLEAR WEAPONS ...................................................Modal Verbs
UNIT 11 HOW GRAVITY AFFECTS PHOTONS ......................If Clauses
UNIT 12 A CENTURY OF DISCOVERIES IN PHYSICS I ..........The Infinitive
UNIT 13 A CENTURY OF DISCOVERIES IN PHYSICS II .........The gerund
The ”ING” ParticipleUNIT 14CONTRIBUTION OF PHYSICS TO THE INFORMATION
AGE I .................................................................................The Article
UNIT 15CONTRIBUTION OF PHYSICS TO THE INFORMATIONAGE II ……………………………………………………
Direct/Indirect (Reported) SpeechList of Irregular Verbs ......................................................................Bibliografie ........................................................................................
„Engleza pentru fizică” se adresează studenţilor carefrecventează cursurile Facultăţii de Fizică dar şi celor care doresc să-şiîmbunătăţească cunoştinţele de limba engleză.
Lucrarea cuprinde 15 texte de specialitate axate pe câtevasubdomenii ale fizicii (astronomie, electrodinamică, fizică atomică şimoleculară, fizică medicală, fizică nucleară, fizica particulelor elementare, magnetism, termodinamică, etc) menite să atragă interesulcititorului către această disciplină. In general, acestea sunt adaptăridupă texte originale englezeşti sau americane sau pur şi simplu
documente autentice extrase din diverse cărţi de specialitate, fieutilizând internetul. Lecţiile au un nivel intermediar fiind concepute camijloc de perfecţionare a unor cunoştinţe de bază deja dobândite fie înanul I de studiu a limbii engleze ca limbă străină în cadrul facultăţilor tehnice, fie in timpul liceului. Din acest motiv, lucrarea cuprinde otematică diversă adaptată preocupărilor studenţilor combinândelemente ale limbii engleze generale cu acelea specifice limbajuluispecializat al fizicii (fiecare text este urmat de explicarea termenilor de vocabular general cât şi a termenilor tehnici).
Vocabulary Practice este destinat însuşirii şi fixării lexiculuitehnic de specialitate pe baza unor exerciţii (identificarea greşelilor,găsirea sinonimelor sau antonimelor unor cuvinte extrase din text,adevărat sau fals, completarea spaţiilor goale, traduceri, etc).
Focus on Language se axează pe prezentarea unor noţiuni şisubtilităţi gramaticale sub formă de scheme şi tabele pentru a facilitamemorarea lor.Exerciţiile aplicative (traduceri, umplerea spaţiilor goale cu anumite structuri, alegerea formei corecte, etc) oferă
posibilitatea de a folosi problemele gramaticale asimilate, în mod
complex.Intenţia mea a fost de a concepe un material de referinţă pentru
studenţii facultăţii de fizică cât şi pentru cei interesaţi de aceastădisciplină.
Sursele folosite în redactarea acestei lucrări sunt menţionate încadrul bibliografiei de la sfârşit.
Physics (from the Greek, ( phusikos), "natural", and ( phusis),"nature") is the science of Nature in the broadest sense. Physics deals
with matter and energy and the fundamental forces of nature thatgovern the interactions between particles. Physicists study a widerange of physical phenomena, from the sub-nuclear particles of whichall ordinary matter is made(particle physics) to the material Universeas a whole(cosmology). Some of the properties studied in physics arecommon to all material systems, such as the conservation of energy.Such properties are often referred to as laws of physics. Physics issometimes said to be the "fundamental science", because each of theother natural sciences (biology, chemistry, geology, etc.) deals with
particular types of material systems that obey the laws of physics. For example, chemistry is the science of molecules and the chemicals thatthey form in the bulk. The properties of a chemical are determined bythe properties of the underlying molecules, which are accuratelydescribed by areas of physics such as quantum mechanics,thermodynamics, electromagnetism. .Physics is closely related to mathematics- mathematics provides thelogical framework where physical laws can be precisely formulatedand their predictions quantified. Physical theories are almostinvariably expressed using mathematical relations, and themathematics involved is generally more complicated than in the other sciences. The difference between physics and mathematics is that
physics is concerned with descriptions of the material world, whereasmathematics is concerned with abstract patterns. The distinction,however, is not always clear-cut. There is a large area of researchintermediate between physics and mathematics, known asmathematical physics, devoted to developing the mathematical
structure of physical theories.
Future directions
Research in physics is progressing constantly on a largenumber of fronts, and is likely to do so for the foreseeable future.Incondensed matter physics, the biggest unsolved theoretical problem isthe explanation for high-temperature superconductivity.In particle physics, the first pieces of experimental evidence for
physics beyond the Standard Model have begun to appear. Foremostamongst these are indications that neutrions have non-zero mass.
These experimental results appear to have solved the long-standingsolar neutrino problem in solar physics. The physics of massiveneutrinos is currently an area of active theoretical and experimentalresearch.
Theoretical attempts to unify quantum mechanics and generalrelativity into a single theory of quantum gravity, a program ongoingfor over half a century, have not yet borne fruit. The current leadingcandidates areM-theory, superstring theory and loop quantum gravity.Many astronomical and cosmologicla phenomena have yet to besatisfactorily explained, including the existence of ultra-high energycosmic rays, the baryon asymmetry, the acceleration of the universeand the anomalous rotation rates of galaxies.Although much progress has been made in high-energy, quantum, and
astronomical physics, many everyday phenomena, involvingcomplexity, chaos, or turbulence are still poorly understood. Complex
problems that seem like they could be solved by a clever applicationof dynamics and mechanics, like the formation of sandpiles, nodes intrickling water, the shape of water droplets, mechanisms of surfacetension catastrophes are unsolved. These complex phenomena havereceived growing attention since the 1970s for several reasons, notleast of which has been the availability of modern mathematicalmethods and computers which enabled complex systems to bemodeled in new ways. The interdisciplinary relevance of complex
physics has also increased, as exemplified by the study of turbulencein aerodynamics or the observation of pattern formation in biologicalsystems.
GENERAL VOCABULARY TECHNICAL VOCABULARY
bulk, n.= grămadă; cantitate mare
underlying, adj.= fundamental; de bazăaccurately, adv.= cu exactitate
prediction, n.= anticipareforeseeable, adj.=ce poate fi
prevăzut; anticipatforemost, adv.= în primul rând
neutrino, n.= neutrion
loop, n.= buclă; nod baryion, n= barionanomalous, adj.= neregulat;anormalsandpile, n.= grămadă; mormande nisiptrickling, adj.= care se prelingedroplet, n.= picăturăto quantify, v.= a cuantifica; a
Neutrinos are the only known particles that are not significantatenuated by his travel through the interstellar medium.
Motions and position of objects are now much easydetermined, modern astronomy being more concerned in
understanding the physical nature of celestic objects. Astronomy is about finding what was going off beyond Earth.
4. Write down the names of the major subfields of physics byreading the definitions below:
a branch of physics that deals with the forces within the atomicnuclei and reactions that alter, fuse or split them
a branch of physics that studies the physical properties of molecules and of the chemical bonds between atoms that bindthem into molecules
a branch of physics that describes the behavior and propertiesof light and the interaction of light with matter
a branch of physics that studies the reactions involvingdegradation of polymerization of polymers and monomers
a branch of physics that studies rigid matter or solids a branch of physics that studies the effects of the electron hull
and the nucleus’s overall spin and electric charge a branch of physics that generates and controls photons
particularly in the visible light spectrum a branch of physics that studies the universe on the largest
scales and at the earliest times a branch of physics that studies the planets and the solar
system
5. Word study
!! while – at the same time whereas – while on the contraryOne carried the books while the other arranged them on the shelves.One arrived on time whereas the others were late.
!! “use” family of wordsto use – They use many gadgets. (a folosi)
a use – Learn the use of this device. (folosirea)user – There are many computer users nowadays. (utilizatori)
usage – The glass apparatus has broken because of rough usage.(folosire)
useful – This is a useful tool. (folositor; util)useless – The machine is useless for this experiment. (inutilă)
usable – This apparatus is still usable. (utilizabil)to misuse – Scientific discoveries may be misused. (a întrebuinţagreşit)
(Bantaş, Andrei; Tudor, Florin; Popescu, Rodica; Ciobanu, Georgeta;Vîlceanu, Irina; Bejan Nicolae, Lb. engleză pentru ştiinţă şi tehnică,Ed. Didactică şi pedagogică, Bucureşti, 1981Make up sentences of your own with “while”, “whereas” and thefamily of the word “use”.
6. Use the words below to form sentences:
a) distinct/research/study/aspects/in physics/is/divided/several/different/fields/of/material/the/contemporary/world/into/that
b) research/disciplines/mix/areas/of/physics/with/other/many/are/there/that
c) scientists/help/astrophysical/system/of/solar/scientific/sources/because/it/can/observe/the neutrino/is/our/interest/beyond
e) the Earth/rotated/in/the/orbits/and/everything/Aristotle/said/were/circles/around/the center/of/perfect/the Universe/it/that(2times)/was
7. Translate into English:
Cuantificarea gravitaţiei este una dintre cele mai dificile probleme ale fizicii ce aşteaptă să fie soluţionată.
Elucidarea acestei probleme îi va ajuta pe fizicieni să înţeleagăo serie de fenomene din domeniul astrofizicii. Cosmologia studiază originea, istoria şi destinul universului. Fizica este o ştiinţă complexă structurată pe mai multe domenii
de interes cum ar fi: astrofizica, electrostatică, electrodinamică,electricitate, mecanică cuantică, oscilaţii şi unde,termodinamică, etc.
Fizica este poate una dintre cele mai importante ştiinţe alenaturii deoarece ea ne poate da informaţii despre fenomene cesunt întâlnite şi în alte ştiinţe cum ar fi biologia sau chimia.
- acţiune încheiată în trecut,moment neprecizat, rezultatîn prezentI’ve lost my key.
- acţiune încheiată de curând(already, just, yet, recently)He has just opened the book.- acţiune terminată într-o perioadă de timp neîncheiată(today, ever, never)Have you ever lost anything?- acţiune începută în trecutdar care se continuă până în
Int.DID+S+Vinf….?- acţiune încheiată intr-unmoment determinat dintrecutMy brother arrived lastweek.- acţiune repetată în trecutHe used to sit for hours infront of the house.
Aff. WAS/WERE+VingNegS+WAS/WERE NOT+Ving
Int WAS/WERE+S+Ving?- acţiune în desfăşurare în trecut(this time last week)I was reading at this timeyesterday.
PERFECT SIMPLE PERFECT CONT.Aff. HAD+V3Neg. S+HAD NOT+V3Int. HAD+S+V3- acţiune încheiatăînaintea unei acţiunitrecute (already, just, yet)He had already been toLondon when I met him.
Aff. HAD BEEN+VingNeg.S+HAD NOT BEEN + VingInt. HAD+S+Ving…?-acţiune începută înaintea uneiacţiuni trecute continuând pânăla eaHe had been waiting for 2 hourswhen she came.
-acţiune ce va avea loc înviitor He will come tomorrow.
Aff.SHALL/WILL+BE+VingNeg.S+SHALL/WILL+NOT+BE+Ving Int.SHALL/WILL+S+BE+Ving- acţiune încheiată înaintea unuimoment din viitor He’ll be eating this timetomorrow.
+V3…?-acţiune încheiată înaintea unuimoment din viitor She will have finished cooking by 5o’clock tomorrow.
Aff .SHALL/WILL+HAVE+BEEN+Ving
Neg.S+SHALL/WILL NOT+HAVE+BEEN+Ving
Int.SHALL/WILL+S+HAVE+BEEN+Ving..?- acţiune începută înaintea unuimoment din viitor care se continuă până la acel momentBy next month he will have beenteaching for ten years.
8. Put the verbs in brackets into the correct tense:a) Don’t worry! I (wait) for you when you return from the school
trip.
b) I already (do) my homework when father (come) home.c) Jane (study) since I entered the kitchen.d) He usually (eat) breakfast at 7 o’clock but yesterday morning
he (eat) at 10.e) You (help) me clean the house on Saturday?f) They (not read) as many books as I’d like to.g) He (live) in London for one year but he can’t understand
English.h) I (not pass) the exam last week because I (be) very tired.
i) I (write) the composition last week but I (not tell) you becauseI (not obtain) a good mark.
j) She (turn off) the light after she (find) the papers she (look for)an hour.
9. Study the list of irregular verbs at the end of the book and thenfill in the blanks with the past tense of the verbs in italics:
1. Andy runs very fast. Yesterday he ......... in the inter-schoolcompetition.
2. We begin our lessons at 8 o’clock. We ....... our classes at 8o’clock yesterday too.
3. Christine sings very well. She ........... two songs at the schoolfestival.
4. I read a lot in my spare time. I ........ three novels last week.5. My sister often breaks things. She ....... a vase this morning.6. We leave for our holiday in August. The younger
children ......... in June.
7. The bell rings for the long break at 9.50. Yesterday it .........earlier.
8. The girls usually swim in the morning. Yesterday morning the boys ........ with them.
9. The form-teacher speaks to the parents once a week. He .........to them last night.
10. We generally eat dinner at 7 o’clock. Last night we ...........dinner at 7 o’clock too.11. Children drink a lot of milk. My baby brother ........... three
cups yesterday.12. We usually meet our English teacher three times a week.Last
week we ......... her four times.(Gălăţeanu , Georgiana, Exerciţii de gramatică engleză, timpurileverbale, Ed. Albatros, Bucureşti, 1979)
10. Translate into English:a) Ne-a plăcut foarte mult vacanţa la mare; am stat într-un hotel
modern, am înotat în mare şi am jucat fotbal pe plajă. b) Şedinţa tocmai se terminase când am ajuns la birou.c) Am cumpărat o grămadă de lucruri cu banii pe care mi i-ai
împrumutat marţea trecută.d) Îmi ia aproape două ore să ajung la serviciu cu maşina.e) De obicei nu fumează mai mult de patru ţigări pe zi.f) Plânge de când a venit acasă. Probabil s-a întâmplat ceva rău
dar nu vrea să-mi spună.g) Te rog să ieşi afară! De mâine nu vei mai lucra aici!h) Această regiune este foarte frumoasă. Turiştii vor veni
întotdeauna sa viziteze acest loc!i) Când m-am urcat în autobuz mi-am dat seama că cineva mi-a
furat portofelul. j) Se certau în timp ce noi încercam să-i împăcăm.k) M-am gândit la oferta lui toată ziua dar tot nu ştiu ce hotărîre
să iau.l) L-am văzut pe unchiul tău acum două zile.Stătea la coadă săcumpere bilete la meci.
WRITINGWrite a short essay in which you express your own opinion aboutthe way physics will contribute to development of the world in thedistant future.
FUN TIME: What is the difference between a physicist, an engineer,and a mathematician?
If an engineer walks into a room and sees a fire in the middle and a bucket of water in the corner, he takes the bucket of water and pours iton the fire and puts it out.If a physicist walks into a room and sees a fire in the middle and a
bucket of water in the corner, he takes the bucket of water and pours iteloquently around the fire and lets the fire put itself out.If a mathematician walks into a room and sees a fire in the middle anda bucket of water in the corner, he convinces himself there is asolution and leaves.
Dynamics studies the mechanical motion of material bodies inconnection with the factors causing the motion. These factors are:mechanical interaction between the bodies, the inertia of the bodiesand the constraints imposed on the bodies. Thus, dynamics deals withthe general laws of mechanical motion. Isaac Newton was the onewho established these basic laws of mechanics, and, by formulatingthem, he explained the workings of the universe.
Isaac published his most famous book “Principia” in 1687while he was a mathematic professor at Cambridge. In the Principia,
he explained three basic laws that govern the way objects move. Hethen described his idea, or theory about gravity. Gravity is the forcethat causes things to fall down. If a pencil falls off a desk, it will landon the floor, not the ceiling. In this book Isaac also used his laws toshow that the planets revolve around the suns in orbits that are oval,not round.
Newton created a system of mechanics by which the motion of all bodies, whether on the earth or in the heavens, can be understoodor at least described and predicted. At the foundations of the system
lie three simple principles – his three laws of motion.The first law is a clear statement of Galileo’s idea of inertia. We quotefrom Newton’s Principia:Law 1 – “Every body perseveres in its state of rest or of uniformmotion in a right line, unless it is compelled to change that state byforces impressed thereon.”This is the law of inertia. There are three distinct points in this law.
First, that a body at rest tends to remain at rest is a universal lesson of experience; second, it is also a matter of experience that the natural
tendency of a body is to move in a straight line. The third point of
Newton’s first law – that a body continues to move with constantspeed – seems contrary to experience. We know that a moving bodymay continue on its course for a time, but it always slows down andeventually stops. How could Newton make such a statement, and use
it as the very foundation of his system?It was really Galileo who developed and justified the idea. Headmitted that all moving bodies on the earth slow down andeventually stop, but he maintained that this happens because there isalways interference with friction. True, he went beyond experience butnot without reasoning.
Newton’s second law answers the very question that the firstlaw raises. Suppose we grant that a body tends to keep its state of motion, if it meets with no interference. What happens when we do
interfere with it? Newton’s answer would be very simple butemphatic: “Then the body will be accelerated”. It will be either speeded up, slowed down, or deflected from its course, depending onthe way we interfere with the body. In other words it will suffer change in its velocity. Newton himself expresses it as follows:Law 2. – The alternation of motion is ever proportional to the motiveforce impressed; and is made in the direction of the right line in whichthat force is impressed. This is the law of acceleration. The bigger the
body – that is the more mass in the body – the less acceleration. Thusthe acceleration produced is directly proportional to the force andinversely proportional to the mass. One of the most important
properties of forces is that they always appear in pairs. There is never just one force in any given situation. For every force there is alwaysan equal and opposite force. This simple statement is Newton’s thirdlaw of motion. Newton stated it as follows:Law 3. – To every action there is always opposed an equal reaction.
Newton’s third law applies to countless interesting instances. As it
speeds up, a car pushes the road backward and as it comes to a stopforward. An airplane pushes the air backward on moving through it. Newton’s calculations changed the way people understood the
universe. No one had been able to explain why the planets stayed intheir orbits. What held them? Isaac proved that they were held in place
by the sun’s gravity. He was not the first to understand that the orbitof a planet was not circular, but more elongated, like an oval. What hedid was to explain how it worked.
5. DEFLECTIONa. the condition of a body to follow a straight lineb. the deviation from a staight line
6. ELONGATED
a. something that is roundb. extended, lengthened
2. Say which statements are true or false:
a) Newton was the first scientist preocuppied with finding anexplanation to the workings of the universe.
b) Dynamics is the study of the mechanical motion of material bodies.
c) Newton described the system of mechanics in his famous book called Principia
d) The first law of inertia concentrates on two distinct issues.e) The law of acceleration states that the acceleration produced to
a body is not proportional to the force impressed.f) Isaac Newton proved that planets were held in their orbits by
the Sun’s gravity.
3. Give the synonyms of the following words extracted fromthe text:
WORD SYNONYM WORD SYNONYMmotion ................... to persevere ..................constraint ................... eventually ..................to revolve .................. elongated ..................friction ................. to quote ..................
4. Give the missing noun, adjective or verb corresponding tothe following words:
a. Legea inerţiei afirmă că un corp este în stare de repaus până în momentul în care o forţă ce acţionează asupra lui îi
modifică această stare. b. Conform teoriei lui Newton un corp nu se poate pune înmişcare sau opri de unul singur şi nu poate să-şi schimbeintensitatea şi direcţia vitezei decât dacă un factor externacţionează asupra lui.
c. Cel de-al doilea principiu al lui Newton susţine că forţa ceacţionează asupra unui corp şi acceleraţia acestuia auaceeaşi direcţie.
d. Principiul acţiunii şi reacţiunii afirmă că forţele pe care le
exercită două corpuri aflate în interacţiune sunt egale înintensitate dar de sensuri diferite.
e. Isaac Newton a fost unul dintre cei mai mari oameni deştiinţă ai lumii fiindcă a reuşit să explice modul în carefuncţionează universul.
1. the reciprocal influence 2 of two or more bodies 3 2. the resistance of a 4
body when moving 5
along a given surface 63. the shape of a body that 7is lengthened 84. a force that tends to cause 9motion 10
5. to force a body to 11
change its state 126. the force that causes things to fall down7. a branch of mechanics that deals with the motion of systems under the action of forces8. a science concerned with the action of forces on bodies.9. movement ; 10. the tendency of a body to maintain its state of restalong a straight line11. to move in a circular course12. ultimately; finally
a) some foreign nonus do not follow the rules mentioned above:bonus – bonuses encyclopedia - encyclopediascampus – campuses museum – museumsdiploma - diplomas electron – electrons
b) some foreign nouns have two plural forms:genius – geniuses (oameni de geniu) – genii (spirite; duhuri)formula – formulas – formulaeindex – indexes (in books) – indices (in mathematics)appendix – appendixes (medical term) – appendices (addition(s)) to
a book
8. Write the plural of the following nouns:
body ................ tendency ................ apparatus ...............inertia ............... velocity ................. medium .................idea ............... property ................ density ..................mass ................. gravity ................. formula ................system .............. electricity ............. momentum ............
9. Turn the following sentences into the plural:
I. a) Albert Einstein’s theory of relativity brought an important change
in Newton’s law of gravitation. b) The radius of an electron cloud is 10.000 times greater than thenucleus.c) The physicist couldn’t describe the discovery he had made twoweeks before the conference since he felt sick.d) Roentgen couldn’t calculate exactly the velocity and the mass of the mysterious ray that he discovered in 1896.e) His discovery made the physicist study this phenomenon moreclosely.II. a) My life has completely changed after the child left for Paris.
b) This woman reads me a story every night but I still can’t sleep.c) That man bought a funny toy for the monkey he had at home.d) It’s hard to establish the right criterion of selection for thesecandidates.
e) He took a photo of his family.
10. Combine the partitive expressions in column A with theuncountable nouns given in column B. Translate them intoRomanian:
Column A Column Ban article of a bar of
a cake of a grain of a heap of an item of a loaf of a lump of a piece of a pile of
a sheet of a slice of a strip of a word of
sugar meat
bread paper soapchocolatelandricerubbishevidence
informationadviceluggagefurniture
(*** Limba engleză pentru admiterea în învăţământul superior,Ed. Didactică şi Pedagogică, Bucureşti, 1978) 11. Translate into English:
a) Trebuie să înveţi aceste formule pe dinafară dacă vrei sărezolvi aceste probleme. b) În aceste regiuni astfel de fenomene au loc cam de două ori pe
an.c) Atunci când nu există forţe care să acţioneze asupra lor,
corpurile îşi menţin stările de repaus.d) Are nişte idei foarte interesante cu privire la modernizarea
acestor oraşe cu autobuze noi şi nepoluante care să ducă copiiila şcoală.
e) Acum câteva secole, fizica a fost dominată de geniile lui Newton, Einstein etc.
WRITING
Summarize the text using your own words (no more than 100words)
FUN TIMEWhy did the chicken cross the road?Aristotle: It is the nature of chickens to cross roads.Isaac Newton: Chickens at rest tend to stay at rest, chickens in motiontend to cross roads.Albert Einstein: Whether the chicken crossed the road or the road
moved beneath the chicken depends on your frame of reference.Werner Heisenberg: We are not sure which side of the road thechicken was on, but it was moving very fast.
A telescope is a device that permits distant and faint objects to be viewed as if they were much brighter and closer to the observer.Telescopes are typically used to observe the skies. For hundreds of years, telescopes were the only instruments available for studying the
planets and stars. Even today, scientists continue to rely on telescopesto learn about distant stars, nebulas and galaxies.
Most telescopes work by collecting and magnifying visiblelight that is given off by stars or reflected from the surface of planets.Such instruments are called optical telescopes. Conventional opticaltelescopes use a curved lens or mirror to collect light and bring it to a
focus, a point in space where all the light rays converge. A smallmagnifying lens called an eyepiece, placed at the focus allows theimage to be viewed. In astronomical research cameras or other instruments placed near the focus make a precise recording of the lightgathered by a telescope. The visible light collected by a telescope isdivided into component wavelengths, or colors, through a processcalled spectroscopy. This powerful technique which uses a prismessentially “decodes” starlight to yield information about an object’stemperature, motion and other dynamics, chemical composition, and
the presence of magnetic fields.Light rays, however, are just one part of what scientists call the
electromagnetic spectrum. Just as stars emit visible light, they alsogive off other types of electromagnetic radiation, including radiowaves, microwaves, infrared light, ultraviolet light, X rays and gammarays. All these forms of electromagnetic radiation are emitted aswaves.
Rapid advances in astrophysics and optical technology broadened telescope technology in the last quarter of the 20th century.Astronomical telescopes today come in a wide variety of shapes andsizes. Many telescopes are Earth-based, located in astronomicalobservatories around the world. But, only radio waves, visible light,and some infrared radiation can penetrate Earth’s atmosphere andreach the surface of our planet. To overcome this problem, scientistshave launched telescopes into space.
There are two main kinds of optical telescopes: refracting andreflecting.
Refracting telescopes, or refractors, use a glass lens to bend, or refractstarlight and bring it to a focus. They are typically hampered bychromatic aberration, which causes different colors of light to come toa different focus because every color has its own degree of refraction.Chromatic aberration causes the image of a star or planet to besurrounded by circles of different colors. Another fundamentallimitation of refractors is that lenses with diameters beyond 100 cmare impractical because they weigh more than half a ton and sag under their own weight, distorting the starlight.
A reflecting telescope uses a precisely curved mirror instead of a lensto collect starlight. Reflecting telescopes are especially useful for
gathering light from dim objects. Not only can a larger telescope seefainter objects but it can also obtain the data in a fraction of time.Larger reflecting telescopes can typically detect objects that are amillionth or a billionth the brightness of the faintest star seen by the
human eye.Other types of telescopes are: radio telescopes, infrared telescopes,ultraviolet telescopes, X-ray telescopes, etc.
GENERAL VOCABULARY TECHNICAL VOCABULARY
faint, adj. = neclar; vagto gather, v.= a aduna; a
strângeto yield, v.= a obţineto hamper, v.= a împiedica; alimitato sag, v.= a se îndoi; a se lăsa(sub greutate)dim, adj.= neclar; şters
curved, adj.= îndoit; curbatlens, n.= lentilă
to converge, v.= a convergeto magnify, v.= a mări; a amplificaeyepiece, n.= ocular wavelength, n.= lungime de undăinfrared, adj.= infraroşufocus, n.= focalizare;to bend, v.= a se îndoi; a se curba
COMPREHENSION
Answer the following questions:a. Why are telescopes considered to be important?
b. Can you explain how optical telescopes really work?c. What happens to the light collected by a telescope?d. What is the electromagnetic spectrum composed of?e. What are the main limitations of refracting telescopes?
f. Are there any differences between refractors and reflectingtelescopes?g. How many types of telescopes do you know?
PRACTICE
1. Say which statements are true or false:a. Scientists use telescopes to find out information about planets,
b) …………………… are the result of the most catastrophicevents in the universe such as collisions between neutron star and black holes having wavelengths shorter than X rays.
c) When the optical image of a star or planet is distorted by the
appearance of circles of different colors we have to do with the process of ………………d) ………………. allow scientists to gather significant
information about the dark dusty region of space.e) ………………. use a convex lens to converge the rays of light
to a focus.f) The electromagnetic spectrum is formed of different types of
electromagnetic radiation among which we can mentiongamma rays, light rays, X rays, ultraviolet and infrared light as
well as …………….g) …………….. help us to find out more about the hottest and
most energetic stars in the universe that can be seen only in theultraviolet region of the spectrum.
5. Spot the mistakes in the following sentences and write downtheir correct version:
These technique use a prism to yield informations about anobject’s temperature, motion, dynamics, etc. A convex lens is thick in the center and thiner toward her
edges. A reflecting telescopes’s light sensitivity increase with the
square of the diameter of the telescope’s mirror. In some telescopes designed in the 1990, the mirror’s weigh
has been dramaticaly reduced, engineers developping meniscusmirrors.
A new tehnique in optic astronomy is to combine signals fromtelescopes in separate locations so that the rezulting image areequal to that received from a giant telescope.
6. Discover the word written down by solving the crosswordpuzzle:
brightness 33. to register 44. systems of stars that 5 are held together by 6 gravitation 75. to tend to meet in a 8
point 9
6. far off in space; 10 remote 11 7. a group of light waves ordered in accordance with the magnitudesof a common physical property8. an electromagnetic wave of very high frequency9. the lens in an optical instrument that allows the eye to view theimage formed10. a luminous dark mass of gases and small amounts of dust
11. the adjustment of an optical device necessary to produce a clear image
7. Translate into English: Spectrul electromagnetic cuprinde atât lumina emisă de aştri
cât şi alte tipuri de radiaţie electromagnetică precum: underadio, raze X, raze gama, etc
Telescoapele sunt amplasate nu numai în observatoare pe pământ ci şi în spaţiu deoarece numai undele radio, lumina
- havo only the singular number a) unique objects: the earth; the sun; the moon, the east, etc
b) nouns of material: bread; oil; soap; tea;water; paper, etcc) abstract nouns:
- actions and states: speaking; writing, etc- qualities: length; height; depth,etc- feelings: curage; love; hope, etc- doctrines; games; currents: socialism; tennis; Renaissance-uncountable nouns: advice; information;news; luggage;knowledge- names of sciences: (take both a singular and a plural verb) :
dynamics; physics; mathematics,etcDefective nouns
- are always plural; they usually denote garments or instruments thatconsist of two equal parts: trousers, shorts, glasses, etc. Some of themhave two different meanings in the plural
NOUN SINGULAR PLURAL
a) colour culoare 1. culoare2. drapel
b) custom obicei 1. obiceiuri2. vamă
c) damage avarie 1. avarii2. despăgubiri
d) glass pahar 1. pahare2. ochelari
e) ground motiv; cauză 1. motive
2. terenf) minute minut 1. minute2. process verbal
f) pain durere 1. dureri2. osteneală
Collective nouns
a) crew; family; team; etc – take a singular verb if we consider
Our team is the best.- take a plural verb if we take it to mean a number of individualsOur team are wearing their new T-shirts.
b) people; military; police, etc – always take a plural verbThose people are waiting for you in the office.c) fish; carp; deer;sheep, etc – do not change in the plural
She bought three carp.
PRACTICE
8. Turn the following sentences extracted from the text into thesingular or plural:
TURN INTO THE SG. TURN INTO THE PL.
a) Telescopes are typically usedto observe the skies.
b) Scientists continue to rely ontelescopes to learn about distantstars, nebulas and galaxies.c) Cameras or other instruments placed near the focus make precise recordings of the lightgathered by telescopes.
a) A small magnifying lens calledan eyepiece allows the image to be
viewed.b) A larger telescope can seefainter objects and obtain the datain a fraction of time.c) This technique ”decodes”starlight to yield information aboutan object’s temperature, motion,chemical composition, etc
9. Choose the right form of the verb:a) The government (is/are) against the favourable verdict delivered bythe Court of Justice regarding the teachers’strike.
b) The government (has/have) announced further VAT cuts.c) Tom’s family (hide/hides) many secrets.d) The family (was/were) waiting for him although it was midnight.e) Our football team (is/are) the best in Europe.f) Their team (is/are) wearing the new red Tshirts.
g) Ten people (is/are) standing in a queue to buy our products.h) Our crew (take/takes) part in a competition.
One of the main quests of science throughout the ages has been to discover what matter is made of – and what holds it together.All matter is made out of tiny particles called atoms. Modern physicshas discovered how atoms are made up of smaller particles and howthese particles interact to build atoms into molecules and larger objects of matter.
Atoms are extremely small particles, out of which all matter ismade. They are the smallest particles of a chemical element that stillhave the properties of that element.
A typical atom is about one millionth of a millimetre across – amillion of them laid in a line would measure one millimetre across.The lightest atom is that of hydrogen, while one of the heaviest is thatof uranium – 200 times heavier than hydrogen. Splitting large atomsinto smaller ones or ‘fusing’ small ones to create larger ones, releasesenergy – this is what happens inside nuclear reactors and atom bombs(‘fission’) and inside hydrogen bombs and the sun (‘fusion’).
States of MatterMatter consists of atoms held together by electromagneticforces. How tight these bonds are determines which of the four states:solid, liquid, gas or plasma, matter exists as. Plasmas are only foundnaturally in the coronae and cores of the stars.
As the atoms move faster, the distance between themincreases. Heating increases the motion of atoms and causes the matter to go from solid (ice) to liquid (water) to gas (vapor). Heat andtemperature is explained in atomic theory as the motion of the atoms
(faster = hotter). Pressure is explained as the momentum transfer of
those moving atoms on the walls of the container (faster atoms =higher temperature = more momentum/hits = higher pressure).Subatomic Particles
At first, scientists thought that atoms were rather like billiard
balls – solid objects with no internal structure. But further experimentsshowed that atoms were made of subatomic particles. The three particles that make up atoms are protons, neutrons and electrons.Protons and neutrons are heavier than electrons and reside in thenucleus, which is the center of the atom. Protons have a positiveelectrical charge, and neutrons have no electrical charge. Electrons areextremely lightweight and are negatively charged. They exist in acloud that surrounds the atom. The electron cloud has a radius 10,000times greater than the nucleus.
The first subatomic particle to be identified was the electron,in 1898. Ten years later, Ernest Rutherford discovered that atoms havea very dense nucleus, which contains protons. In 1932, JamesChadwick discovered the neutron, another particle located within thenucleus. Rutherford performed early experiments of shooting alpha
particles (helium nuclei) at sheets of gold to show that atoms were, infact, mostly empty space. Some of the alpha particles passed throughthe foil as expected, but some particles bounced back. Alpha particlescarry positive charge. Like charges repel and opposites attract. Thismeant that there was a small concentration of positive charges in theatom. Rutherford’s model of an atom has a small
o nucleus containing - protons (positive charged particles)-neutrons (particles with no electrical
charge surrounded byo electrons (small particles with negative charge)
This model basically looks like a little solar system, where thenucleus is the Sun and the electrons orbit the
nucleus like the planets orbit the Sun. The solid behavior of atoms isdue to the electromagnetic repulsion of the electrons in the outer orbits. When you strike your hand on a table, the solidness you feel isan illusion caused by the electrons.The NucleusThe nucleus is only 1/100,000th the diameter of the atom and yetnearly all the mass of the atom is in that tiny nucleus. There are justover one-hundred elements. Each element may also have severalisotopes (different numbers of neutrons), but generally only a few will
be stable (not radioactive). Heavy atoms tend to be radioactive.
ElectronsElectrons are negatively charged subatomic particles, and they causeelectricity when they flow or static electricity when many of them
build up in one place, or are taken away. The electrons have negative
electrical charge, and their movement between atoms is responsiblefor electrical current. They can also be removed from atoms byrubbing different material together, e.g. by combing your hair. This isstatic electricity. The electrical charge of protons and electrons areexactly equal but opposite. Usually there are the same number of
protons and electrons in an atom, and their electrical charges canceleach other. The electron is the light weight particle that “orbits”outside the atomic nucleus. Electrons surround the atom in pathwayscalled orbitals. The inner orbitals surrounding the atom are spherical
but the outer orbitals are much more complicated.
GENERAL VOCABULARY TECHNICAL VOCABULARY
quest, n.= căutare, urmăriretiny, adj. = micuţ, mititelto bounce, v. = a sări, a ricoşato repel, v. = a respingeto flow, v. = a curge, a se scurgeto shoot at, v. = a căuta să atingă,a ţinti
orbital, adj. = orbitalto split, v. = divizat, împărţitfission, n. = fisiune plasma, n. = plasmă, gaz ionizatradius, n. = rază a unui cerc (pl.radii)nucleus, n. = nucleu (pl. nuclei)trickle, n. = scurgere în cantitatemicăcorona, n. = coroană solară (pl.coronae) pathway, n. = traiectorie
COMPREHENSIONAnswer these questions on the text:
a. What is matter made of? b. Can you name the lightest atom? What about the heaviest one?c. What happens inside a nuclear reactor?d. Which are the states of matter?e. Do atoms have an internal structure?f. What kind of charges do the protons, neutrons and electrons
1. Match the following words with the definitions given below:a. alpha particles f. matter k. momentum
b. radius g. nucleus l. coronaec. orbital h. protond. molecule i. atome. plasma j. fission
1. force or speed of movement2. the substance of which any physical object consists or is
composed3. the splitting of the nucleus of an atom into nuclei of lighter
atoms accompanied by the release of energy4. a white or coloured set of concentric circles of light seen
around a luminous body (sun, moon or the Sun)5. a straight line extending from the center of a circle or sphere to
the circumference or surface6. the positively charged mass within an atom, composed of
neutrons and protons7. an elementary particle that is a fundamental constituent of allatomic nuclei, having a positive charge
8. the smallest component of an element having all the propertiesof the element consisting of an aggregate of protons, neutronsand electrons
9. a highly ionized gas containing an approximately equalnumber of positive ions and electrons
10. the path traced by an electron revolving around the nucleus of
an atom11. the smallest physical unit of an element or compoundconsisting of one or more like atoms in an element
12. a positively charged particle consisting of two protons and twoneutrons emitted in radioactive decay or nuclear fission; thenucleus of a helium atom
2. Select the answer which best completes or explains the meaningof the sentences:
F) Inside the nucleus of an atom, neutrons have no ……………..…
G) Most heavy atoms are generally characterized by………………. resulting from changes in the nuclei of atoms
of the elementH) When electrons are removed from atoms by rubbing differentmaterial together we have to do with ……………..
4. Give nouns corresponding to the following verbs:
TO REPULSE …………………. TO FUSE ……………………
TO BOUNCE …………………. TO INTERACT ……………..
TO MOVE ………………….5. Give synonyms to the following words extracted from the text:
TO SURROUND ……………………. LOCATED …………………
PROPERTIES ……………………. EMPTY ……………………
TO SPLIT …………….. TINY ……………… QUEST …………
6. Complete the missing words in the paragraph using vocabularyitems from the text studied above:
Rutherford made a very important assumption after his experiment:when a_ _ _ _ particles collided directly with nitrogen nuclei, anentirely new _ _ c_ _ _ _ was created which was unstable anddisintegrated into a form of oxygen and ordinary _ y _ _ _ _ _ _. Itwas this ejected _ y _ _ _ _ _ _ which he was detecting in the form of high-speed _ _ _ t _ _ _. This historic experiment was the first man-
made _u _ _ _ _ _ transmutation. Chadwick in England was one of Rutherford’s disciples. He demonstrated the existence in nature of afundamental _ _ _ _ i _ _ _ that was electrically neutral. In 1935 hereceived the Nobel prize for his discovery of the _ _ u _ _ _ _.
7. Translate into English:a) Atomul este cea mai mică parte dintr-un element
chimic care păstreză însuşirile chimice ale elementuluirespectiv.
b) Rutherford a descris atomul ca fiind format dintr-unnucleu în jurul căruia se învârt electronii.
c) Chadwick a descoperit o particulă nouă care aveaaceeaşi masă ca protonul dar nu avea sarcină electrică
d) Sarcinile de acelaşi fel se resping în timp ce sarcinileopuse se atrag.e) Curentul electric este rezultatul mişcării electronilor
printre atomi.
FUN TIME
A hydrogen atom lost its electron and went to the police station to filea missing electron report. He was questioned by the police: "Haven't
you just misplaced it somewhere? Are you sure that your electron isreally lost?""I'm positive." replied the atom.
FOCUS ON LANGUAGE
THE GENITIVE CASE
The Analytical Genitive – with the preposition of is used with:a) nouns denoting human beings: the book of the pupil
b) nouns denoting objects: the doors of the housec) with long noun phrases: the sister of the boy you’ve just talked to ..
The Synthetic Genitive – with ’s is used with:a) singular nouns: the girl’s room; John’s pencil
b) irregular plurals: the men’s club
! We add only ’ to plural nouns: my friends’ books! The “Synthetic Genitive” is used with:a) nouns denoting persons or other beings: Tom’s pencil; the hen’segg
b) geographical names or natural phenomena: Romania’s flag; theday’s heatc) collective nouns: the government’s solution to this problem
d) nouns denoting measurement, time, space, quantity, value: a threeweeks’ holiday; a life’s work
The Implicit Genitive- is often used nowadays; we do no longer use the mark of thegenitive: afternoon schedule; audience participation
PRACTICE9. Use either the analytical or the synthetic genitive with the nounsin brackets:
a) He opened only one (window) his room. b) I haven’t read today (newspaper).c) Tom is (Mary) brother.d) (Children) answers are always direct and sincere.e) (Woman) clothes are very expensive this summer.
f) (Babies) toys are bought especially on Christmas.g) He wanted to sharpen the blade (knife) in just two minutes.h) We don’t know the (woman) opinion regarding this problem.i) I have always received Tom (presents) earlier than expected.
j) The pupils (relatives) were asked to join their trip to themountains.
10 Turn the following nouns in the genitive case into the plural:a) My cousin’s house is large.
b) The girl’s room is very pretty.c) The pupil’s uniform is blue.d) The woman’s work is very much appreciated.e) The worker’s life is much better today.f) The teacher praised the student’s work.g) Where are the child’s clothes?h) The baby’s food is in the fridge.
(Gălăţeanu, Georgiana; Comişel, Ecaterina, Gramatica limbii engleze
pentru uz şcolar , Ed. Didactică şi pedagogică, Bucureşti, 1982)
11. Substitute synthetic genitive forms for the prepositionalgenitive forms when possible:
a. What can you tell me about the forests of this region? b. The color of my favorite skirt is blue.c. What’s the name of the new colleague of your twin brothers?d. The interests of the police are to cover all the traces of the
murder.
e. The bathrooms of that house are quite small and dirty.
12. Turn the following sentences into plural:a. Have you written down the effect of that interesting
phenomenon? b. The child’s foot was bleeding heavily so that he had to
be taken to the hospital.c. The shelter of the sheep was made of wood and leaves.d. His wife’s laughter drew everybody’s attention.e. He has been looking for the key of his car since
morning.f. There is a poster on the door of this house.g. The main traffic light of the city is out of order so pay
attention while driving.h. The roof of this building has to be repaired, otherwise
it will rain inside.i. Your friend’s money is on the third shelf.
13. Translate the following set phrases into Romanian:at one stone’s throw; to be at one’s wits’ end; for Heaven’s sake; a
bird’s eye view; at death’s door; in my mind’s eyes; at arm’s length;to my heart’s content; for conscience’ sake; art for art’s sake(***, Limba engleză – exerciţii pentru admiterea în învăţământulsuperior, Ed. Didactică şi Pedagogică, Bucureşti, 1978)
14. Translate into English:a) Colegii lui Jane au organizat o petrecere frumoasă pentru ziua eide naştere.
b) Este foarte greu să contrazici declaraţiile femeilor privindrăpirea copilului, având în vedere că nu ai nici o dovadă împotrivalor.c) Nu se poate să fi rupt toate paginile dicţionarelor.
d) Ai văzut maşina familiei Brown după accidentul pe care l-auavut săptămâna trecută?e) Mi-a fost greu să mai recunosc feţele copiilor după ce aumâncat o ciocolată întreagă.f) Populaţia Chinei a crescut în ultimii ani, guvernul confruntându-se cu serioase probleme economice.g) Trebuie să faci curat în camera lui Sarah înainte ca ea să seîntoarcă de la spital.h) Intenţiile părinţilor tăi au fost de a te încuraja să înveţi mai bine,
nu de a te pedepsi.i) Toţi am râs când am auzit numele pisicii ei.
j) Bărbatul de acolo este fratele unchiului tău sau nepotul bunicilor lui Tom?
WRITING
Write your own short history of the atom by using theinformation in the text studied above or you may add furtherdetails that you consider to be necessary.
FUN TIMETwo atoms are walking down the street and they collide. The firstatoms picks himself up and dusts himself off. Then he turns to thesecond and helps him up. "Are you OK?" he asks.The second atom says "I think... no wait", he pats himself down, "I'velost an electron""Are you sure""Oh, I'm Positive"
In 1921 Albert Einstein was awarded the Nobel Prize for having conceived the theory that explained the “photo-electric effect”.Two years later Robert Millikan was awarded the Nobel Prize for having performed the experiment that proved Einstein’s theory.Einstein’s theory had first been advanced in 1905; Millikan’s greatexperiment was performed almost a decade after that. The doubleaward marked the success of one of the most profound revolutions in
physics.Isaac Newton had enriched the science of physics with two
theories: the first described the laws of motion of ponderable bodies;the second described light a being composed of very tiny particles of
radiant matter. Newton supported the corpuscular theory of light, eventhough it explained only two of the known phenomena of light.Reflection, according to Newton, was simply the elastic bouncing of the light particles form the reflecting surface; and refraction, the
bending of light as it passed from a rare medium like air to a denser medium like water. Newton’s theory of light could not explaininterference, diffraction or polarization.
By the beginning of the eighteenth century, the wave theory of light put forward by Newton’s contemporary, Huyghens – that light
consisted of a vibration in the ether – began to come to the fore. Thegreat French physicist Fresnel demonstrated mathematically that if
light were truly a wave phenomenon, then all the observed behavior could easily be explained. Half a century later, James Clerk Maxwellstrengthened the wave theory of light by demonstrating dramaticallythat light was a vibration of electric and magnetic waves. Not until the
last decade of the nineteenth century did there appear to be anydiscrepancy in Maxwell’s theory.In 1887 Hertz had noticed that light – particularly ultra-violet
light – would cause metal surfaces to become electrically charged.Thomson showed that the positive charge on the surface was due tothe instantaneous emission of negative electrons from the metal.
One physicist who seemed aware that this involved acontradiction in the wave theory of light was Albert Einstein; and in1905 he suggested that the “photoelectric effect” could be explained
only by a return to the corpuscular theory of light with certainimportant modifications.
To Einstein the contradiction was this : The more light thatwas shone on a metal surface, the greater the number of electrons thatwere given off; but the individual energies of the electrons were notaffected by the intensity of light even though Maxwell’s theory saidthat this was the measure of light energy.
Einstein offered this explanation: A beam of light wascomposed of a stream of tiny corpuscles or pulses of energy. Theenergy of each pulse was proportional to its color or, in classicalterms, its frequency – not its amplitude, as Maxwell had said. Whenlight struck solid matter, some of these Einsteinian corpuscles of energy were absorbed. The absorbed energies in some cases weregreat enough to allow electrons to escape from the atoms in whichthey had been held. The energy of these liberated “photoelectrons”should, therefore be identically equal to the energy of the capturedlight corpuscle, called “quanta”, less the amount of energy needed to
extricate the electron from the atom. This last quantity, the “work function” could be measured by direct means.Einstein stated this in the form of an equation that connected
the velocity of an emitted photoelectron with the energy of thecaptured light quantum and the work function The crux of Einstein’stheory was the way energy was supposed to depend on color, or frequency. Einstein said that this dependence was a direct one.
Energy was equal to frequency multiplied by a “certainnumber”; and the “certain number” was the same for every color; it
had to be a constant of nature. Einstein used the symbol h for thenumber out of deference to his colleague, Max Plank.
to come to fore = a veni în prim planto strengthen, v. = a întări; aconsolidato give off, v.= a elibera; a emitecrux, n. = esenţa; dificultateadeference, n.= stimă, consideraţie
motion, n. = mişcare,
mecanism bouncing, n.= vibraţiediffraction, n. = difracţie aluminiiwave, n.= undăcharge, n. = sarcină; încărcare
beam, n. = rază; fascicul deraze
pulse, n. = impuls; şoc
velocity, n. = vitezăquantum, n.= cuantă
COMPREHENSION
Answer the following questions:a. Who was the physicist that was awarded the Nobel Prize for
having explained the “photo-electric effect”?
b. What were the two theories described by Isaac Newton?c. Did James Maxwell agree to the wave theory of light?d. How did Einstein explain the photo-electric effect?e. What was the crux of Einstein’s theory?
PRACTICE
1. Match the two columns paying attention to the meaning thewords have in the text above:
1. DIFFRACTION a) any of a variety of translucent materials for filtering glare from
the light sourceb) the bending of light waves around obstacles in their path
2. POLARIZATION a) a state in which rays of light or similar radiation exhibit different
properties in different directionsb) a device, often a crystal or prism that produces polarized light
a) an elementary particle of matter as an electron, proton or atomb) a body, mass, or part having a special character or function
4. REFRACTIONa) the return of light after striking a surface
b) the change of direction of a ray of light in passing obliquely fromone medium into another in which its speed is different5. WAVE
a) a progressive disturbance propagated from point to point in amedium or space without progress or advance by the pointsthemselves as in the transmission of light
b) the analogous motion of the particles of a mass of air or the like,whose state of equilibrium has been disturbed; oscillation6. PHOTON
a) a quantum of electromagnetic radiation, usually considered as anelementary particle
b) an elementary particle that is a fundamental constituent of allatomic nuclei, having a positive charge equal in magnitude to that of the electron7. REFLECTION
a) the ratio of the intensity of reflected radiation to that of theradiation incident on a surface
b) the return of light after striking a surface8. EMISSION
a) something that is emitted; discharge; emanationb) the total flux emitted per unit area
2. Say which statements are true or false:
a) Albert Einstein was awarded the Nobel Prize for havingconceived and performed the photo-electric effect
b) Reflection and refraction were the only two phenomenaexplained by Isaac Newtonc) James Maxwell demonstrated that light was a vibration of
electric and magnetic wavesd) Hertz observed that ultra-violet light would cause metal
surfaces to become electrically chargede) Einstein thought that the individual energies of the
electrons (given off by a metal surface) are affected by theintensity of light
particle, body or system 73. rapidity of an action; speed 84. to bend the light waves 9
5. something that is essential 10 and decisive 11 6. a state characteristic to therays of light which exhibit different properties in different directions 7. elementary particles negatively charged 8. the smallest quantity of radiant energy 9. change of position in space; movement 10. a sudden leap or spring
11. to back up an affirmation
9. Translate into English:a) Newton a contribuit la dezvoltarea fizicii prin elaborarea unei
teorii corpusculare a luminii. b) Teoria lui Newton nu a fost completă în sensul că deşi oferea
definiţiile reflexiei şi refracţiei, nu spunea nimic despreinterferenţă, difracţie sau polarizaţie.
c) Contemporanii lui Newton au considerat lumina un fenomende undă şi au definit-o ca o vibraţie de unde electrice şimagnice.
d) Einstein a fost primul fizician care a reuşit să explice efectulfoto-electric prin câteva modificări aduse teoriei corpusculare aluminii.
e) Concluzia lui Einstein a fost că energia micilor corpusculi ceformează o rază de lumină depinde în mod direct de culoarea şifrecvenţa acesteia.
10. Select the appropriate word in the following sentences:
a) Einstein noticed that the energy of each pulse was proportionalto (it’s/its colour).
b) In (classical/classic) terms he meant that the energy of the tinycorpuscles that composed the beam of light was proportionalto its frequency.
c) The wave theory considered light to be a vibration of
9. Fill in the blanks with the appropriate form of the adjective oradverb (the positive, comparative or superlative degree)
a) Physics as a science is even …………… (important) when wethink of it in relation with other sciences like: chemistry, medicine. b) The rainbow, …………………. (beautiful) phenomena from theatmosphere used to be considered a “heavenly sign”.c) The role of polymeric materials is becoming ……………..(important) .d) The existence of the particle is not a surprise, but its mass is……………. (low) than expected.e) A ……………. (powerful) brightness appears after the preliminary
discharge of the lightning, first, near the earth, then ………….. (high)and …………… (high) to the clouds.f) Millikan said that ……………. (lucky) thing that had ever happened to him was that Pupin did not take him on as his assistant.g) There are six types of quarks in nature. The up and down quarks are……………….. (light). …………(heavy) quarks were present in theearly universe.h) Even ……………. (radical) alternative, ……………. (late)incarnation of the steady state theory does not dispute that theuniverse is expanding and cooling.i) Nowadays, physics is considered one of …………… (important)sciences and its achievements will take mankind to a …………..(high) grade of civilization.
10. Supply the appropriate form of the adjectives given inbrackets:
a) Which is the ……………. (funny) joke you have ever heard? b) Jane often wears ………….. (beautiful) dresses than her sister.c) What is the ………………. (good) solution to this problem?d) He is the ……………. (old) son of the Browns but he is
…………….. (short) than Mark.e) I can’t get …………….. (thin) although I always eat ………..
(little) than my colleagues.f) Can you show me the …………………. (old) building in this
town?
g) Why don’t you try to talk to him …………… (late)?h) This is the …………… (interesting) book I have ever heard.
9. He is quite an expert in electric/electrical engineering.(***, Limba engleză – exerciţii pentru admiterea în învăţământulsuperior, Ed. Didactică şi Pedagogică, Bucureşti, 1978)
14. Translate into English:a) Fizicienii au încercat să găsească cea mai bună metodă de ademonstra că teoria lor este corectă.
b) Cercetările recente au arătat importanţa ultimelor descoperiridin domeniul fizicii.
c) Noua tehnică nu era foarte atractivă deoarece necesita unechipament mai complex şi mai scump decât cea anterioară.
d) Treptat, din ce în ce mai mulţi oameni de ştiinţă au fostconcediaţi din universităţi din diferite motive.
e) Am adunat cât de multe informaţii am putut pentru a crea prototipul ideal.
WRITINGWrite an essay beginning with “Einstein was a great scientistbecause he …..”. (200 words)
FUN TIME
Seen on the door to a light-wave lab:
"CAUTION! Do not look into laser with remaining good eye."
Some years earlier, Max Planck had been able to solve a
hitherto insoluble theoretical problem in radiation by arbitrarilyreplacing the term for energy with another term that includedfrequency and this constant. Planck had written the number as “h” andregarded the whole operation as a mathematical convenience adoptedsimply to make the problem “come out”. Einstein perceived thatPlanck inadvertently had done considerably more: because Planck’s“mathematical convenience” had solved a problem, it was possibly atrue statement and meant what it said.
Einstein gave it literal meaning and so his photoelectricequation was the first direct application of the new quantum theory.Millikan decided to subject Einstein’s theory to these three questions:
1. Did the energy of a light quanta actually equal “h” times the
frequency of light?2. Was “h” really a constant for all colors?3. Did Einstein’s photo-electric equation agree with what
occurred in nature?For the experiment Millikan designed an ingenious apparatuswhich he was later to call his “vacuum barber shop.”Inside a glass vacuum chamber he had a turntable which could
be rotated by means of a magnet outside the chamber. On three facesof the turntable were samples of three highly reactive metals –sodium,
potassium, and lithium- each of which responded to light of differentfrequencies. Because the experiment would depend so crucially on thenature of the surface of each metal sample, the vacuum chamber alsocontained a small polishing device which could be brought to bear onthe metal surfaces by magnets outside.
White light from a lamp source was refracted into its spectrum by means of lenses and a prism. The different pure colors were playedin turn upon a narrow slit so that Millikan could observe the effect of only one color at a time upon the metal surfaces. As each pure color shone in on the metal surface, Millikan measured the number of electrons that came off and their energy. The number of electronscoming off each second was simply the current. He measured their energy by determining how much electrical force was needed to stopthem. If a body of unknown weight requires a force of five pounds to
be held in the air, one can say that the body weighs five pounds.Following the same reasoning, Millikan determined electron velocity
by measuring the force required to cancel it out. Knowing this
velocity, he was able to calculate the energy of the electrons emittedfor each color. When this was repeated for all the various portions of the spectrum, he was then able to plot a curve showing the electron’senergy dependence on color or frequency. His result gaveconclusively positive answer to the three questions he had askedEinstein’s theory. The direct measurement of Planck’s constant turnedout to be 6.57x 10-27 erg seconds.
America had waited a long time for such a man as Millikan.His researches were of the first rank; as a teacher at Chicago he took
the time to train and encourage the young man with whom Michelsonhad not patience; as administrator at California Institute of
Technology, he trained several generations of young scientists to alevel of achievement which would put an end forever to the necessityfor young Americans to go abroad for scientific training
GENERAL VOCABULARY TECHNICAL VOCABULARY
hitherto, adv. = până azi;acumto occur, v. = a se întâmpla; aavea locto bear on, v. = a se rezemadesample, n. = mostră, eşantion
achievement, n. = realizare
turntable, n. = disc turnant; placăvacuum chamber = cameră de vid polishing device = dispozitiv denetezirespectrum, n. = spectruslit, n. = fisurăto plot, v. = a trasa; a desena
curve, n. = curbă
COMPREHENSION
Answer the following questions:
a) What did Planck’s symbol “h” really designate?
b) Did Einstein agree to Planck’s mathematical convenience?c) What did Millikan invent in order to prove Einstein’s theory?d) How was Millikan’s apparatus designed?e) What did his experiment consist of?
PRACTICE
1. Match the two columns paying attention to the meaning of thewords in the text:
1. QUANTUMa. the smallest quantity of radiant energy equal to Planck’s
constant; the frequency of the associated radiation b. any one of the three types of elementary particles that are
believed by some physicists to form the basis of all matter inthe universe
1. It was ………….. of him to solve all the exercises so quickly.2. She was …………… with everybody not only with her family.
CURRANT / CURRENT
1. The water …………. damaged all the small houses from this area.2. I ate so many …………. last Monday that I felt sick all day long.
7. Crossword puzzle:1
1. a regular happening of
events 22. a synonym of “area” 33. a solid body having 4
triangular bases 54. inventive 65. an extremely small 7
amount of radiant 8 energy 9
6. a space that contains 10 no matter
7. the band of colors produced as a result of the passing of sunlightthrough a prism8. something which doesn’t change9. another word for hue10 without others; exclusively
a) Ecuaţia fotoelectrică a lui Einstein a fost un pas important îndezvoltarea teoriei cuantice a luminii.
b) Millikan a creat un aparat extrem de ingenios prin intermediulcăruia a reuşit să calculeze constanta lui Plank.
c) Millikan a folosit o lampă ca sursă de lumină pentru a urmăriefectul fiecărei culori în parte asupra suprafeţei metalice.d) Millikan a măsurat energia electronilor emişi în urma
refractării luminii pe suprafaţa metalică prin aflarea forţeielectrice necesare opririi lor.
e) Millikan a afirmat că, greutatea unui corp este egală cu forţanecesară susţinerii lui în aer.
FOCUS ON LANGUAGE
THE ADVERB
According to the meaning criteria there are:- adverbs of manner show the way an event occurs: slowly, fast, well,etc- adverbs of time show the temporal circumstances of an event: today,
tomorrow, afterwards, monthly, etc- adverbs of place indicate the whereabouts of an event: here, there,northward, inside, outside, far, above, etc- adverbs of cause, reason, result and concession show thecircumstances under which an event takes place: so that, consequently,still, yet, etc- interrogative adverbs: when, why, where- adverbs of quantity, measure: little, more, extremely, etc- Introductory adverbs: however, consequently, etc
- Explanatory adverbs: namely, such as- adverbs of frequency: always, never, often, etcOther adverbs: maybe, possibly Adverbial phrases: at first, upside down, at least, at random, etc! The most common suffix for adverb formation is „ly” which isattached to the adjectival form: brilliant – brilliantlyOther suffixes for adverb formation are: „ward(s)”, „way(s)”,„long”, etc! The suffix „ly” also creates adjectives. Pay attention to the
This is a daily magazine. (adjective) He phones his parentsdaily. (adverb)The spelling of the adverbs formed by „ly”:a) the final „e” of the adjective is maintained: large – largely;
Exc: whole-wholly simple – simply b) adjectives ending in vowel and „l”, double the „l”: equal - equallyc) adjectives ending in „ll” lose one of them: full – fullyd) adjectives ending in „ue” lose the final „e”: true – trulye) adjectives ending in „y” change it into „i”: day – dailyThe Comparison of Adverbs - is similar to that of the adjectives:fast –faster – the fastestlikely – more likely – the most likely
The Irregular Comparison of Adverbs:
POSITIVE COMPARATIVE SUPERLATIVE well better the best
much more the most far farther/further the farthest/the furthest late later the latest/the last ill/badly worse the worst little less the leastnear nearer the nearest/the next
9. Underline the adverbs from the text studied above: ”TheRevolution in Light II”.10. Recognize the grammar issues representative for the followingsentences extracted from the text “The Revolution in Light I” anddiscuss them:
R. Millikan was awarded the Nobel Prize for having performed
the experiment that proved Einstein’s theory. In 1887 Herz had noticed that light would cause metal surfacesto become electrically charged.
The double award marked the success of one of the most profound revolutions in physics.
By the beginning of the eighteenth century, the wave theorycame to the fore.
The absorbed energies in some cases were great enough to
allow electrons to escape from the atom in which they had been held.
1. You are an excellent cook. The food tastes (good, well).2. It was a lovely day with birds singing and the sun shining (bright,
brightly) and girls wearing (bright, brightly)-coloured dresses.3. I hate taking medicine. It tastes (bitter, bitterly).4. I don’t think he is ill. His voice sounds (merry, merrily).5. It rains (heavy, heavily).6. It is (near, nearly) five o’clock.
7. You must work (hard, hardly) for your exams.8. He spoke so (quick, quickly) that we could (hard, hardly) followhim.9. When did you (last, lastly) see him?10. I am (direct, directly) interested in what you think.11. He couldn’t move as he was (dead, deadly) tired.12. His eyes hurt him (bad, badly).13. Mr. Jones held it (tight, tightly).14. It was six o’clock as (near, nearly) as he could guess.
15. (last, lastly) I must account for my sister’s behaviour.(***, Limba engleză – exerciţii pentru admiterea în învăţământulsuperior, Ed. Didactică şi Pedagogică, Bucureşti, 1978)
13. Rewrite the following sentences paying attention to the degreeof comparison of the adverbs in parentheses:
a) Sarah speaks English (well) but she can’t understand French. b) You run (fast) than my brother.c) He phoned me (quickly) than I had expected.
d) You move (slowly) of all the children in the class.e) His cake tastes (well) than the one I did yesterday.
f) This dress cost me (much) than I could afford.g) Tom sings (badly) than his colleagues do.h) You don’t have to walk (far) than I do.i) I paid (little) than all the other teachers.
j) He doesn’t work (hard) than me, he is just lucky.
14. Translate into English:a) Săptămâna aceasta a învăţat mai mult decât săptămâna trecută.
b) Cu cât citim mai mult cu atât ştim mai mult.c) S-a jucat mai puţin decât ceilalţi copii deoarece nu s-a simţit
bine.d) Care dintre lucrări a fost scrisă cel mai frumos?e) Trebuie să conduci maşina cu atenţie, mai ales noaptea.
f) Dacă vrei să iei o notă mare trebui să citeşti mai mult.g) Eşti destul de inteligent ca să înţelegi că nu se mai poate face
nimic în ceea ce-l priveşte pe fratele tău.h) Mergi mai încet, nu pot să ţin pasul cu tine!i) Nu mai mânca atât de repede! Este suficientă mâncare pentru
toată lumea! j) Am mers mai departe decât trebuia, dar mi-am dat seama şi m-
am intors în staţia de autobuz să cer cuiva informaţii despreadresa ce- o aveam.
FUN TIME
How many physicists does it take to change a light bulb?Eleven. One to do it and ten to co-author the paper.
How many astronomers does it take to change a light bulb? None, astronomers prefer the dark.
How many radio astronomers does it take to change a light bulb? None. They are not interested in that short wave stuff.
How many general relativists does it take to change a light bulb?Two. One holds the bulb, while the other rotates the universe.
The rainbow, the most beautiful phenomenon from theatmosphere, had a great impact upon people of all times, beingconsidered a “heavenly sign” bringing welfare and prosperity. Therainbow is an optical phenomenon which arises from the solar light
dispersion and reflection in the rain drops from the atmosphere. It can be seen when the sun shines from behind us in the front cloud curtain,the light reflecting on the clear vault of the sky.
The clouds are more or less delineated by water drops or by icecrystals groups, suspended in the atmosphere, arising from thecondensation or sublimation of the water vapours. The same as withthe optical prism, the light in the water drops from the clouds isdecomposed in seven colours: red, orange, yellow, green, blue,aniland violet.
Usually there are two rainbows arising:a main and a secondaryone. Inside the bow of the main rainbow, the red colour is situatedoutside of it, while in the secondary one, red is inside. The more lightis inflected and reflected on the bigger rain drops, the more vivid and
pure the light is. It is to mention that sometimes rainbow canaccompany even moonlight but they are pale and hard to noticewithout special apparatus.
The thunder and the lightning accompaning storms whichterrified people for centuries, find their scientific explanation in theelectricity of the atmosphere. The thunder is an electrical dischargesparkling in the terrestrial atmosphere, may it be between two cloudsor between a cloud and the earth. The storm clouds charge especiallyin their inferior part and with negative charge and the latter, in its turn,charges by influence the surface of the earth with positive charge.When the cloud moves forward, the area of positive charge from theearth follows the cloud like a shadow. The cloud and the earth can beconsidered the accessories of a condenser of which electrical power
can reach values of decimals and even hundreds of millions of volts. If the power between two clouds or between clouds and the earth becomes high enough, it takes place a very powerful electricaldischarge called thunder.
The irradiant phenomenon accompanying the thunder is calledthe flash of lightning and the accoustic one is called the thunder.
The sparks of the lightning can reach lengths starting fromthousands of meters to a few kilometers. The diameter of the sparks isof a few centimeters (to 20cm). In most cases, the spark of the
lightninig, very small and insignificant in the beginning, takes placenear the clouds and then it is extended towards the earth direction, this
being a preliminary discharge which creates a kind of a good-leadingelectricity channel in the air and which travels to the earth about 50meters, with a speed of 50000 km/hour. After a very short period of time (decimals of microns of seconds) after the first discharge is gone,
there is another preliminary discharge occurring; this one approacheseven more the earth and then is interrupted again. Sometimes, thereare even decimals of preliminary discharges. After the preliminarydischarge reaches the earth or an object in electrical touch with thisone, it follows a very powerful brightness of the sparkled channel,first, near the earth, then, higher and higher to the clouds. There isonly now that the main discharge of the lightning occurs and the firstone mentioned moves form the earth to the cloud. So, the twoopinions according to which the lightning strikes man both from the
above and from the insides of the earth are right.Inside the channel of the lightning, the air is completely
ionized, the substance in here being the plasma. Due to discharging of a large amount of energy in a very short period of time, there is asudden jumping pressure inside the thin plasma channel and whichcauses acoustic shock wave (the lightning). The irradiant phenomenonaccompanying the electrical discharge is called the flash of lightning.
The perlite lightning is called the lightning whose irradiantchannel is fragmented in a series of small round irradiant groups,looking as the beads of a necklace. It is considered a type of transition
between the habitual and the globular lightning.Statistics show that every minute the globe of the earth is
stroke by about 1800 lightning, which means a rate of one billionlightning per year. On global scale, lightning strikes every day 20
persons and wounds 80. Against the damages caused by the directeffect of the lightning, there is used protection equipment calledlightning conductors. They are composed of one or more catching
elements (steel or copper electrical conductors with curved bars);these are put on the highest parts of the protected objects; they canalso be composed of one or several descending conductors (by whichthe electric power of lightning discharge passes through in its way tothe earth) and a bottom electrode.
Answer the following questions:a. What makes the rainbow appear after the fall of the rain?
b. Is there just one rainbow that arises?c. What is the scientific explanation of the thunder phenomenon?d. Are there many electrical discharges that occur during the
lightning?e. What is the protection equipment that people use against the
damages caused by the lightning?
PRACTICE
1. Match the two columns paying attention to the meanings thewords have in the text above:
1. TO INFLECTa. to produce an electrical charge in a neighboring body without
contact b. to turn from a direct line (about a body that has electric or
magnetic properties)2. PLASMA
a. a highly ionized gas containing an approximately equalnumber of positive ions and electrons
b. the liquid part of blood or lymph3. CONDUCTOR
a. a device that conducts electricity installed to divert lightningaway from a structure by providing a direct path to the ground
b. a combination of lenses that gathers and concentrates light in aspecified direction
4. VOLTa. the meter-kilogram-second unit of power equivalent to one
joule per second b. the meter-kilogram second unit of electromotive force or
potential difference equal to the electromotive force5. TO DISCHARGEa. to relieve
b. to lose or give up a charge of electricity6. DISPERSION
a. the separation of white or compound light into its respectivecolours
b. the linear distance in a given direction between a body or pointand a reference position
7. IRRADIANTa. acting along or in the direction of the radius of a circle
b. emitted or propagated by radiation8. ION
a. an electrically charged atom or group of atoms formed by theloss or gain of one or more electrons
b. the meter-kilogram-second unit of resistance equal to theresistance in a conductor in which one volt of potentialdifference produces a current of one ampere
2. Say which statements are true or false:
a) A thunder is produced when a storm cloud is charged positively in its inferior part and this charge is influenced by the negative charge of the Earth
b) It is well known that inside the main rainbow the colour isred while in the secondary one the red colour is situated
outsidec) The lightning is an electrical discharge that moves from theEarth to the cloud
d) In the case of the perlite lightning we have to do withseries of irradiant groups situated in just one irradiantchannel
e) The lightning is caused by the sudden jumping pressureinside the plasma channel as a result of the discharge of alarge amount of energy in a very short period of time
3. Complete the following sentences with the appropriate word inthe pair, according to the context:
OPTIC/OPTICAL
1. A cranial nerve that conducts impulses from the retina to the brain is called an ………….. nerve.2. Did you know that an ………. glass has refractive properties?3. What are these ………… instruments used for?
ELECTRIC/ELECTRICAL1. They want to hire a good ………… engineer so they
advertised the position in the local newspaper.2. An …………. motor is a machine which transforms …………
energy into mechanical one.3. In the past, many criminals used to be executed on the ……..
chair for their murders.4. It is quite difficult to explain what is an ……………. storm to
a student in the 5th grade.5. In this motor, the ……….. power is usually converted into
mechanical power.
ACOUSTIC/ACOUSTICAL1. I couldn’t remember anything about the …………. nerve so I
didn’t pass the exam.2. In a concert hall the sound is improved by the …………cloud
that is installed near its ceiling.3. The physicist gave us an accurate description of an …………..
ohm but, frankly, I was too tired to understand it.
4. Complete the missing words in the paragraph using
vocabulary items from the text studied above:
When a lightning flashes, it carries a lot of _ _ e _ _ _ and beatsthe air. This heat causes the temperature and the _ _ _ _ _ u _ _ torise . Thus, the air moves faster than the speed of the soundcausing sound _ a _ _ _. These are the _ _ u _ _ _ _ that one hearsafter a flash of lightning. We can protect ourselves from _ i _ _ _ _
_ _ _ by using a capacitor. A capacitor is an _ _ _ c _ _ _ _ _ _ device.
5. Give verbs corresponding to the following nouns:
three plus seven is/are tensix minus two is/are four thirty divided by five is/are sixseven multiplied by three is/are twenty one
three squared/three to the power of twosix cubedthe square root of ninex is equivalent to yx is not equal to yx is approximately equal to yx tends to noughtx is less than fivex is greater than five
x is less than or equal to 10x is greater than or equal to 10x tends to infinity
PRACTICE7. Choose the best answer that completes your sentences payingattention that:
1 mile = 1.6093 kma) The distance between the Sun which is the central body of the solar system and the Earth is about ………..
b) The distance between the Moon which is the Earth’s naturalsatellite and the Earth is about …………c) The speed of light is about ……..
1) 186.300 miles/s 2) 93.000.000 miles 3) 238.857 miles
8. Write down the name of these signs and their numericalcomputation:
“+” “-“ “x” “ ÷ “
9. Write the next three numbers in each sequence: 11th the eleventh ………. ………… …..…….
12 twelve ……… ………... ..………1st the first ………. ……….. ..……….
19
th
the nineteenth …………. ………… ………...39 thirty nine ………… …………. .…………
On January 4, 1896, Wilhelm Konrad von Roentgen read a paper before the Wurzburg Phyisico-Medical Society. Hisannouncement created a sensation in two sciences. Roentgendescribed the discovery of an entirely new form of radiation which
permitted him to photograph objects hidden beneath opaque, solidshields. He showed a photograph of parts of his own living skeleton – the bones of his hand. To the medical world, the phenomenon of theRoentgen rays was a miracle that had to be put to diagnostic work atonce. To the world of the physicist, the explanation of the
phenomenon seemed far more important at the moment than its use.The search for this explanation was to prove the first leap into theatomic and sub-atomic world.
The marvelous rays discovered by Roentgen had a history
going back some forty years in European science. In 1853, a French physicist named Masson played a high voltage spark on a glass vesselfrom which most of the air had been evacuated. The flask suddenlywas filled with a bright, unearthly purplish glow. Hittorf and Crookesmade further investigations of this beautiful phenomenon during the1860’s and ‘70’s. The invention of the same highly efficient vacuum
pumps that allowed Edison to invent an incandescent lamp alsoallowed Crookes to observe the weird vacuum glow at lower andlower pressures. The nature of the glow changed as the pressure insidethe glass flask was reduced to a hundredth and then thousandth of theatmosphere outside. It brightened, then broke into isolated blobs of light, and finally diminished and disappeared altogether. When thevacuum was sufficiently thorough, the glow in the tube was gone, butthe glass walls of the vessel itself began to shine with a ghostlygreenish light. Crookes established that the glow in the tube was dueto the passage of rays which were called cathode rays. He also notedthat the mysterious rays seemed to act as if they had mass and
velocity. He did not understand their nature, and he referred to them as“a fourth state of matter”, neither liquid, gaseous, nor solid.It further was established that the cathode rays were electrical
in nature because a magnet held outside the tube could cause thecathode rays to bend in an arc within the tube. An electric forceoutside the tube would also cause the cathode rays to be deflected.
In the autumn of 1895, Roentgen was performing someexperiments with a Crookes tube which was wrapped tightly in black
paper so that none of the glow would escape. By accident, he noticed
that in the completely dark room, with the tube so shielded, “a paper screen washed with barium-platinum-cyanide lights up brilliantly and
fluoresces equally well, whether the treated side (of the paper) or theother be turned toward the discharge tube. Roentgen knew that thecathode rays would make such a coated sheet fluoresce and he soonfound out that all substances were more or less transparent to the
mysterious new rays. Only lead seemed opaque to it. He found that hecould activate photographic films and this made photography possiblewith the new rays. He traced back the source of the rays. They camefrom the spot on the glass where the cathode rays impinged at highvacuum. He then said that the new rays could be generated whenever cathode rays struck any solid body. To prove it, he designed a tubewhich would give a more intense form of radiation which, for lack of a better name, he called “X-radiation”, -X, the unknown. Roentgenhimself did not understand the phenomenon and offered the
explanation that these were “longitudinal vibrations in the ether”. Hisdiscovery made physicists study the phenomenon of fluorescencemore closely while the medical world used the tube to analyze theinner structures of the human body.
GENERAL VOCABULARY TECHNICAL VOCABULARY
beneath, adv. = mai jos,dedesubt, subleap,n. = săritură, saltmarvelous, adj. = minunat,uimitor altogether, adv. = total,completto bend, v. = a îndoi, a curbato wrap, v. = a înfăşura, a
înveli
shield, n. = ecran de protecţie, scutspark, n. = scânteieflask, n. = balon, butelie, flaconvacuum pump = pompă de vid blob, n. = picătură de lichidcathode ray = rază catodicăglow, n. = luminescenţă,incandescenţăto deflect, v. = a devia, a îndoi, a
curba discharge, n. = descărcarelead, n. = plumb, grafitto impinge, v. = a ricoşa, a (se)lovi
a. one which presses or applies pressure b. force per unit area
2. Say which statements are true or false:
a) Milikan discovered a new form of radiation which allowedhim to photograph objects beneath opaque shields.
b) Crookes’s tube was sealed in both ends by a metal platec) Ectoplasm is the fourth state of matter d) The medical world used Roentgen’s tube in different ways
to analyze fractures, deep-seated wounds and the inner structure of the human body
e) Roentgen did not understand the phenomenon and stated
that the X rays are in fact longitudinal vibrations in theether
PAST TENSE Past Tense – simultaneityHe told me the truth when he returned homeShe was watching TV while I was studying.They were laughing when their brother enteredthe room.Past Perfect – anteriorityI thought that he had passed the test but he didn’t.Future in the Past – posteriorityHe mentioned that he would lend me his book.
FUTURETENSE Future Tense – simultaneityYou’ll tell me what you’ll buy.Present Tense – simultaneity (TemporalClause)I’ll solve this problem when I have time.Present Perfect – anteriorityI shall give you an answer after I have read the
paper.
Exceptions:1. Even if in the main clause we have a verb in the Past Tense, in thesubordinate clause we can use a verb in the Present Tense when wedeal with general truths;We all knew that the atom is the smallest particle, you needn’t repeatthat.2. in attributive clause – the verb in the subordinate can be at anytenseHe gave me presents which I shall always remember.3. in comparative clauses – introduced by: as, more than, as well as,as much as, the tense of the verb is required by the context.He asked for the TV set more than I’ll ever ask for it.
PRACTICE
9. Put the verbs in brackets in the appropriate tense payingattention to the sequence of tenses:
I am sure I (to forget) my passport at home and I wonder why it (notto be) here. I phoned my sister to ask about it and she said she (to see)it a few days ago in the kitchen. The passport should be here but I stillcan’t find it. Maybe my father (to come across) it and (to put) it
somewhere else. I don’t know for sure. I’ll call him later when theconference (to be over). I just hope I (not miss) the plane.
10. Select the correct word or expression in parentheses in each of the following sentences:
a) She will buy me books as soon as she (will arrive/ hasarrived/arrives) in New York.
b) The teacher told us that the Earth (had/has/would have) a period of revolution of 365.26 days.
c) He had demonstrated long time ago that the neutrons(are/were/had been) the fundamental constituents of the atomicnucleus.
d) My father asked me yesterday why I (left/had left/have left) soearly the previous day.
e) Show this paper to Mr. Black when you (meet/met/will meet)him.
f) They said they (send/will send/would send) me a postcard onTuesday.
g) She gave me magazines which I never (wouldforget/forgot/shall forget).
h) I was doing my homework while he (read/was reading/hadread) the local newspaper.
i) She remembered that the money (is/was/would be) in the topdrawer.
j) People will forget him if he (doesn’t do/will not do/hasn’tdone) something to change that.
10. Translate into English:a. Voi veni la tine când voi termina proiectul la fizică.
b. I-am spus de două ori că este cel mai bun dintre toţi şică nu trebuie să-şi facă griji deloc.
c. Nu am crezut că mă va minţi vreodată.d. De îndată ce a gustat prăjitura bunicii, a rămas
nemişcat gândindu-se că este cea mai bună prăjitură pecare a mâncat-o vreodată.
e. Tremura de nelinişte în timp ce aştepta rezultatulexamenului.
IntroductionMagnetism is an aspect of electromagnetism, one of the
fundamental forces of nature. Magnetic forces are produced by themotion of charged particles such as electrons, indicating the closerelationship between electricity and magnetism. The most familiar evidence of magnetism is the attractive or repulsive force observed toact between magnetic materials such as iron. More subtle effects of
magnetism, however, are found in all matter. In recent times theseeffects have provided important clues to the atomic structure of matter.History
The phenomenon of magnetism has been known since ancienttimes. The mineral lodestone, an oxide of iron that has the property of attracting iron objects, was known to the Greeks, Romans, andChinese. When a piece of iron is stroked with lodestone, the iron itself acquires the same ability to attract other pieces of iron. The magnetsthus produced are polarized – that is, each has two sides or ends callednorth-seeking and south-seeking poles. Like poles repel one another,and unlike poles attract.Electromagnetic theory
In the late 18th and early 19th centuries, the theories of electricity and magnetism were investigated simultaneously. In 1819an important discovery was made by the Danish physicist HansChristian Oersted, who found that a magnetic needle could be
deflected by an electric current flowing through a wire. Thisdiscovery, which showed a connection between electricity and
magnetism, was followed up by the French scientist André MarieAmpère, who studied the forces between wires carrying electriccurrents, and by the French physicist Dominique François Jean Arago,who magnetized a piece of iron by placing it near a current-carrying
wire. In 1831, Faraday discovered that moving a magnet near a wireinduces an electric current in that wire, the inverse effect to that found by Oersted: Oersted showed that an electric current creates a magneticfield, while Faraday showed that a magnetic field can be used to createan electric current. The full unification of the theories of electricityand magnetism was achieved by the English physicist James Clerk Maxwell, who predicted the existence of electromagnetic waves andidentified light as an electromagnetic phenomenon.
Subsequent studies of magnetism were increasingly concerned
with an understanding of the atomic and molecular origins of themagnetic properties of matter. In 1905 the French physicist PaulLangevin produced a theory regarding the temperature dependence of the magnetic properties of paramagnets, which was based on theatomic structure of matter. Langevin’s theory was subsequentlyexpanded by the French physicist Pierre Weiss, who postulated theexistence of an internal “molecular” magnetic field in material such asiron. This concept, when combined with Langevin’s theory, served toexplain the properties of strongly magnetic materials such aslodestone.
After Weiss’s theory, magnetic properties were explored ingreater and greater detail. In 1925, two American physicists showedthat the electron itself has spin and behaves like a small bar magnet.At the atomic level, magnetism is measured in terms of magneticmoments – a magnetic moment is a vector quantity that depends onthe strength and orientation of the magnetic field, and theconfiguration of the object that produces the magnetic field. Other
scientists then predicted many more complex atomic arrangements of magnetic moments, with diverse magnetic properties.
GENERAL VOCABULARY TECHNICAL VOCABULARY
clue, n. = indiciu, punct de reper to seek, v. = a se mişca, a seîndrepta spreneedle, n.= ac, săgeată, indicator
wire, n. = sârmă, fir de sârmăto predict, v. = a prezice, a
iron, n. = fier (ca metal)lodestone, n.= magnet naturalsau magnetitoxide, n. = oxid
prevedeasubsequent, adj. = următor, ulterior to postulate, v. = a accepta fărădovezi, a pretinde
spin, n. = moment de răsucire,rotire
COMPREHENSION
Answer these questions on the text:a. What was the main property of the mineral lodestone?
b. Which is the cause that generates the appearance of magneticforces?
c. Who succeeded in unifying both theories for the very firsttime?
d. Did Faraday agree to Oersted’s theory?e. Can you define a magnetic moment?
PRACTICE
1. Mark the following sentences true (T) or false (F):
a. Oersted proved that there was no connection between electricity andmagnetism
b. It was Pierre Weiss that postulated for the very first time theexistence of an internal “molecular” magnetic field inside ironc. There are both attractive and repulsive forces between two magneticmaterialsd. A vector quantity does not depend on the orientation of themagnetic field
e. By the polarization of magnets we understand the existence of two poles called north-seeking pole and south-seeking pole
2. Match the following words with the definitions given below:
a. iron e. lodestone i. electricity b. pole f. electron j. magnetismc. magnetite g. magnet k. oxided. wire h. matter
1. elementary particle that is a fundamental constituent of matter
magnetic needle magnetic inductionelectromagnetic wave paramagnetmagnetic moment
a. He described the ……………………. as being a quantity
equal to the product of the pole strength and length of a givenmagnet
b. A body or a substance that possesses magnetization in direct
proportion to the strength of the field in which it is placed iscalled …………………c. Generally, a magnetic substance has in its vicinity a
………………… which manifests itself as a forced. The magnetic field is measured by means of ………………
which is in fact a vector quantity.e. The acceleration of an electric charge produces a (an)
………………… that is propagated by the periodic variationof intensity of perpendicular and magnetic fields.
f. A (An) ………………….. is an ordered (directional) motionof charged particles (these particles are free electrons)
g. Inside a compass you can find a ……………………. thatindicates the direction of the Earth’s magnetic fields or (theapproximate position of North and South)
7. Some of the words bellow are spelt incorrectly; pick themout and write down their correct version:
attractive repel arangementmagnet simultaneously strockedlodstone unification existence
consists of moleculesDOWN: 2. the structure of an atom3. a quantity possessingboth magnitude and direction4.physical repulsion 15. the science dealing with
magnetic phenomena6.a fundamental constituent
of matter having negativecharge7. to presuppose
8. a space in the vicinity of a magnet9. to spread10. to cause approach or union.
9. Translate into English:
a. In 1905, s-a descoperit că, în interiorul unor materiale ca fierul,există un camp magnetic molecular.
b. John Michell a afirmat că, atracţia şi respingerea magneţilor descreşte pe măsură ce distanţa dintre polii acestora creşte.c. Teoria structurii atomice a avut o importanţă deosebită înexplicarea prezenţei magnetismului în elemente de tranziţie cafierul sau compuşi ai acestora.d. În 1600, William Gilbert a subliniat că pământul însuşi se
e. Pe baza mecanicii cuantice, fizicianul Heisenberg a explicatcâmpul molecular.f. Oersted a descoperit că un ac magnetic ar putea fi deviat dacă s-ar introduce curent electric într-un fir.
g. Faraday a contrazis teoria lui Oersted arătând că un câmpmagnetic poate fi folosit pentru a crea curent electric şi nu invers.h.Cele două teorii de mai sus, cea a electricităţii şi cea amagnetismului au fost unite de Maxwell care a prezis existenţaundelor electromagneticei. Relaţia apropiată dintre electricitate şi magnetism estereprezentată de forţele magnetice care sunt produse de mişcareaunor particule încărcate ca electronii.
FOCUS ON LANGUAGE
THE PASSIVE VOICE
FUTURE FUTURE IN
THE PASTSIMPLE shall/will+be+VedV3
would+be+VedV3
CONT. _ _ PERFECT Shall/will+have+
Been+Ved/V3Would+have+Been+Ved/V3
PERFECTCONT.
- -
10. Underline the verbs that were used in the Passive Voice inthe text studied above “Magnetism”.
11. Change the following sentences into the Passive Voice:a. People generally use telescopes to observe the skies.
b. Galileo had already formulated the law of inertia when Newton
was born.c. Gilbert applied scientific methods to the study of electricity andmagnetism.d. The physicist is reading a paper on the gravitomagnetic field.e. Scientists have viewed celestial objects through a telescope’seyepiece.
(adapted from www.weburbia.co.uk/physics)
12. Change the following sentences into the Passive Voice.
Make the underlined words the subject of your passivesentences:
a. He will give us an answer as soon as possible. b. They offered Jane a well-paid job but she couldn’t accept it.c. She hasn’t watered the roses for a week now.d. When they were good friends he was phoning her twice a day.e. Someone saw you enter the shop over there.f. John had painted the house three times before he left.g. She didn’t allow me to enter her room.h. Jane couldn’t have written all those funny jokes.i. I’ll send you the letter as soon as I arrive home.
j. He ought to lend you $50.13. Rephrase the following sentences using the wordssuggested, so that the original sense is preserved:a) What caused the explosion?
What _____________ by?
b) We must look into this matter. This ______________________.c) People say he is a reliable man.
It ________________________.d) Someone saw you enter the bank.
You ________________ enter the bank.e) It is claimed that the new model is more economical than theold one.
The new model __________________________.
f) The police believe he left the country several days ago.He is ___________________________________.
g) She doesn’t like when they keep her waiting.________________ kept ___________________.
h) People know that he has had three wives already.He is __________ been _________ three times already.
i) It surprised me to find that someone had broken into our cellar.I ____________ that our cellar ____________.(Pawlowska, Barbara; Kempinski, Zbigniew, Teste de limbaengleză, Ed. Teora, Bucureşti, 1997)14. Translate into English paying attention to the use of thePassive Voice:a. Dintre toate încercările făcute pentru a explica acest rezultat, celmai promiţător a fost oferit de Lorentz.
b. Tocmai mi s-a explicat teoria relativităţii a lui Einstein dar tot
nu pot s-o înţeleg.c. Aceste teorii vor fi testate săptămâna viitoare pentru a ledemonstra eficienţa.d. Celebra carte a lui Isaac Newton „Principia” trebuie să fie citită
până la sfârşitul semestrului.e. Am fost surprinsă de experimentul pe care voia să-l facă dar nuam putut să-l determin să renunţe la el.
FUN TIMEWhat is the meaning of the abreviation SPIN ?
Nuclear weapons, explosive devices designed to release nuclear energy on a large scale, used primarily in military applications. The
first atomic bomb (or A-bomb), which was tested on July 16, 1945, New Mexico, represented a completely new type of explosive. Nuclear explosives involve energy sources within the core, or nucleus,of the atom. The A-bomb gained its power from the splitting, or fission, of all the atomic nuclei in several kilograms of plutonium. TheA-bomb was developed, constructed and tested by a massive UnitedStates enterprise during the World War II. After the war, the U.S.Atomic Energy Commission became responsible for the oversight of
all nuclear matters, including research on hydrogen bombs. In these bombs the source of energy is the fusion process, in which nuclei of
the isotopes of hydrogen combine to form a heavier helium nucleus.This weapons research resulted in the production of bombs that rangein power from a fraction of a kiloton to many megatons. Furthermore,the physical size of a nuclear bomb was drastically reduced,
permitting the development of nuclear artillery shells and smallmissiles that can be fired from portable launchers in the field.Fission WeaponsIn 1905 Albert Einstein published his theory of relativity. Accordingto this theory, the relation between mass and energy is expressed bythe equation E= mc2 , which states that a given mass (m) is associatedwith an amount of energy (E) equal to this mass multiplied by thesquare of the speed of light (c). A very small amount of matter isequivalent to a vast amount of energy.
In 1938, German chemists Otto Hahn and Fritz Strassmann split theuranium atom into two parts by bombardment with neutrons. When auranium or other suitable nucleus fissions, it breaks up into a pair of nuclear fragments and releases energy. At the same time, the nucleusemits very quickly a number of fast neutrons, the same type of particlethat initiated the fission of the uranium nucleus. This makes it possibleto achieve a self-sustaining series of nuclear fissions; the neutrons thatare emitted in fission produce a chain reaction, with continouousrelease of energy. The light isotope of uranium is easily split by thefission neutrons and, upon fission emits an average of about 2.5neutrons. One neutron per generation of nuclear fissions is necessaryto sustain the chain reaction. Others may be lost by escape from themass of chain reacting material, or they may be absorbed in impuritiesor in the heavy uranium isotope if it is present. Any substance capableof sustaining a fission chain reaction is known as a fissile material.Fusion (Thermonuclear) WeaponsEven before the first atomic bomb was developed, scientists realized
that a type of nuclear reaction different from the fission process wastheoretically possible as a source of nuclear energy. Instead of usingthe energy released as a result of a chain reaction in fissile material,nuclear weapons could use the energy liberated in the fusion of lightelements. This process is the opposite of fission, since it involves thefusing together of the nuclei of isotopes of light atoms such ashydrogen. It is for this reason that the weapons based on nuclear-fusion reactions are often called hydrogen bombs or H-bombs. Of thethree isotopes of hydrogen the two heaviest species, deuterium and
tritium, combine most readily to form helium. The termthermonuclear implies that the nuclei have a distribution of energies
characteristic of the temperature. This plays an important role inmaking rapid fusion reactions possible by an increase in temperature.Fission-Fusion-Fission Bombwithin the bomb. In the process helium and high energy neutrons were
formed. The third stage resulted from the impact of these high-speedneutrons on the outer jacket of the bomb, which consisted of naturaluranium. No chain reaction was produced, but the fusion neutrons hadsufficient energy to cause fission of the uranium nuclei and thus addedto the explosive yield and also to the radioactivity of the bombresidues.
GENERAL VOCABULARY TECHNICAL VOCABULARY
weapon, n.= armădevice, n.= aparat; dispozitivto oversight, v.= a supravegheasquare, n.= pătraton a large scale = pe scarămare
to release, v.= a degaja; a eliberacore, n.= partea centrală; mijlocfission, n.= fisiunefusion, n.= fuziuneshell, n.= obuzmissile, n.= proiectilfissile, adj.= fisionabilto yield, v.= a emite; a producechain reaction = reacţie în lanţ
COMPREHENSION
1. Answer these questions on the text:a) Which are the three types of nuclear bombs described in the
text? b) How did Einstein’s theory of relativity contribute to the
creation of the first fission weapon?
c) What are hydrogen bombs based on?d) What does thermonuclear really mean?e) Can you describe the process involved in the fabrication of
thermonuclear bombs?
PRACTICE
1. Mark the following sentences true (T) or false (F):
a. The A-bomb consists of the fusion of the atomic nuclei inseveral kilograms of plutonium.
b. Fission bombs are based on the bombardment with neutrons of an uranium atom.
c. Scientists realized that nuclear weapons could not use theenergy liberated in the fusion of light elements.
d. Deuterium and helium are the lightest isotopes of hydrogen.e. Thermonuclear bombs are the result of the impact of highspeed neutrons with the outer jacket of the bomb.
f. Both fission and thermonuclear bombs are based on chainreactions.
2. Fill in the blanks with the following words extracted from thetext:
a) It was impossible to create hydrogen bombs before the perfection of the A-bombs since only the latter could producethe heat necessary to achieve ………………….. of hydrogen
bombs. b) Although the heavy uranium …………….. is not able to
maintain a chain reaction, it can be converted into a……………. material by bombarding it with ………………..
c) Nowadays guided ……………. can be launched from theground, the air or underwater.
d) The chain reaction is formed as a result of the ………………of an uranium nucleus into nuclear fragments.
e) ……………….. weapons can be used for a variety of
applications in the military field.f) The minimum amount of …………….. material needed tosustain a chain reaction is known as the critical mass.
g) The detonation of a …………….. weapon leads to catastrophiceffects for the environment since the resulting fireball burnseverything.
3. Give the noun, adjective or verb corresponding to the followingwords:
4. Give the synonyms of the following words extracted from thetext:WORD SYNONYM WORD SYNONYM
fission …………… to oversight …………...shell …………… to release …………..readily …………… to yield …………...to fuse …………… to fire …………..to sustain ……………
5. Spot the mistakes in the following sentences extracted from thetext and write down their correct version:
The oposite process of fussion is fision which involve thefusing of the nuclei of isotopes of light atoms such ashydrogen.
Such a reaction imply that two of the most heavy isotopescombine to form helium.
Scientists realized that a type of nuclear reaction diferent fromthe fision proces were theoreticaly possible before the firstatomic bomb was developped.
In a fission bomb the uranium atom is splited into two parts by bombardament with neutrons releassing energy. After the war, the US Atomic Energy Comission become
responsable for the oversight of all nuclear mater includinghydrogen bombs.
6. Crossword puzzle:
DOWN: 1. one of the heaviest isotopes of hydrogenACROSS: 2. a mechanical invention 1
3. a projectile from a canon filledwith an explosive charge 2
4. a thermonuclear reaction in 3which nuclei of light atoms join 4to form nuclei of heavier atoms 55. another isotope of hydrogen 6having an atomic weight of three 76. an instrument used to attack in 8combat 97. to free from anything that 10restrains8. the splitting of the nucleus of an atom into nuclei of lighter atoms9. to support10. a kind of weapon for shooting
7. Translate into English:
Când are loc fisiunea unui nucleu de uraniu, acesta se sparge în
fragmente nucleare şi emite energie. Atunci când dimensiunile bombelor nucleare s-au redus,artileria nucleară s-a dezvoltat rapid de la obuze până la
proiectile mici. Bombele cu hidrogen sunt rezultatul fuziunii a doi nuclei ai
izotopilor hidrogenului şi anume: deuteriu şi tritiu pentru aforma heliu.
Bomba termonucleară nu se bazează pe o reacţie în lanţ ci pefuziunea neutronilor care au suficientă energie pentru a duce la
Prima bombă atomică a fost construită de Statele Unite şitestată pentru prima oară în timpul celui de-al doilea războimondial.
FOCUS ON LANGUAGE
MODAL VERBS
Modal verbs are used to indicate a certain attitude towards what is being said, towards the information transmitted concerning theintentions of the speaker or the effect on the hearer.
There are two types of modal verbs in English:1) notional verbs expressing manner (want; wish; order; oblige;advise; intend; mean; prefer, etc) which act just like normal verbs.( Don’t oblige her to wash the dishes!)2) defective modal verbs (can/could; may/might; must/to have to;shall/should; will/would; ought to; used to; need; dare) which expressmanner but they have some specific characteristics:
a) They can not be conjugated in all the moods and tenses; that iswhy they have equivalents to express the other moods and
tenses ( must – to have to; may – might, etc) b) They do not take –s/-es in the third person singular ( I am surehe can do this.)
c) In interrogative and negative sentences modal verbs are notaccompanied by the auxiliary ”to do” excepting ”to have to”.
i. (You mustn’t worry.)ii. (Could you give me an example?)
iii. ( ! You don’t have to finish your work before11 a.m.)
d) Modals are followed by the short infinitive that is by infinitivewithout ”to” (except ”ought to; to have to”.)i. (I must do it at once.).
mightto be allowed toto be permitted toto be possible to
a (se) puteaa avea voie
shall should _________ a trebui
will would _________ a vrea
ought to ______ __________ a trebui;a se cuveni
need Needed __________ a fi nevoie
dare dared __________ a îndrăzni
CAN a) Ability (physical or intellectual) – I can/am able to swim. b)Permission – Can I go out?c)Possibility – You can eat, there is enough food.d)Polite request – Can you wait a little longer?e)Negative deduction – Jane can’t be working so long.COULD a) ability in the past – I could swim when I was young.
b) more polite request – Could you stay with me?c) condition – I could buy you a book if I had money.MAY a) requiring/granting permission – May I use your phone?
b) possibility – She may be working in her room.MIGHT a) past tense of may – She said she might help you.
b) more polite request – Might I use your phone?c) smaller possibility – She might pass her exams.MUST a) obligation – I must/have to be there before 2.
b) deduction – She must be rich. (I am sure she is rich).c) prohibition (must + not) – You mustn’t come late.
SHALL–
a) the strong intention imposed on the subject by someoneelse – You shall leave by 10 o’clock. b) to ask an advice – Shall I buy this dress?c) a promiss – The manager shall settle the complain.WILL – a) strong intention of the subject imposed on the others – I willsolve the problems if I want to.SHOULD – a) advice – You should work.
b) moral obligation – I should pay the electricity bill.WOULD – a) polite request – Would you like to talk to him now?
b) absence of obligation – You needn’t do it. (it’s not necessaryaccording to the speaker)OUGHT TO – a) obligation – You ought to do the homework after 11o’clock.
b) a supposition – He ought to be in the session by now.c) moral duty – He ought to be on time.
PRACTICE
8. Underline the modal verbs that you can find in the text studiedabove.
9. Fill in the blanks with modal verbs:
a) You ................... shoot the horse.It ...................... to run againin two weeks.
b) You ...................... have paid $500 for the painting of anunknown artist.
c) They ...................... be writing a composition for the Englishclass otherwise they would be here right now.
d) You ....................... keep your promise if you want to besuccessful.
e) You ....................... take a shower if you plan to go out withMary.
f) I ........................ to buy her a present although I didn’t havetoo much money.
g) She ................... turn you down if you propose to her dressedlike that.
h) I ........................ translate what he is saying. It’s toocomplicated.
i) You …………… give up eating chocolate if you want to bethin. j) You …………… have accepted when he asked you for the
very first time.
10. Choose the one item marked a, b, c or d to complete thefollowing sentences:a) Jane (nu se poate să fi venit) to the club last night.
a. can’t have come c. couldn’t come
b. may not have come d. couldn’t have come b) You (nu e nevoie să iei) those tablets so often.
a. shouldn’t take c. needn’t take b. mustn’t take d. aren’t allowed to takec) Frank (se poate să nu fi văzut) “Hair” while he was in London.
a. might not see c. couldn’t see
b. may not have seen d. couldn’t have seend) She said she (trebuia să trimită) a telegram to her husband.a. must have sent c. had to sendb. must send d. had had to send
e) Kate (ar fi trebuit să fie dusă)to hospital a long time ago.a. ought to be taken c. should takeb. should have taken d. should have been taken
f) John (se temea pe vremuri) of horses.a. used to be afraid c. used to have been afraid
b. used to being afraid d. used to having been afraidg) I’m glad I (n-am fost nevoit să lucrez) overtime last week.
a. didn’t have to work c. needn’t have worked b. mustn’t work d. haven’t had to work h) She (nu e obişnuită să se trezească) so early.
a. usen’t to get up c. didn’t use to get upb. isn’t used to getting up d. isn’t used to get up
i) Professor Swindon (nu se poate să fi întârziat) for the lecture.a. wasn’t able to come late c. couldn’t have come lateb. might not come late d. might not have come late
j) I’m afraid I (va trebui să fiu de serviciu) next Sunday.a. must be on duty c. will have to be on dutyb. will be on duty d. have to be on duty
(Pawlowska, Barbara; Kempinski, Zbigniew, Teste de limba engleză,Ed. Teora, Bucureşti, 1997)
11. Translate into English:
a) Vrei să mă ajuţi să car toate aceste cutii pline de jucării până laetajul 3?
b) Doriţi o cafea cu frişcă sau una simplă?c) Ar fi trebuit să aştepte mai mult de 10 minute sosirea
autobuzului.d) E posibil ca trenul să nu ajungă în gară la 4 fix din cauza
zăpezii.e) Ar fi putut conduce maşina dar nu a vrut deoarece era foarte
obosit.f) Trebuie să citeşti toate aceste cărţi dacă vrei să obţii bursa.
The answer: Whether or not light (or more accurately photons, theindivisible units in which light can be emitted or absorbed) has massand how it is affected by gravity, puzzled scientists for many, manyyears. Figuring it all out is what made Albert Einstein famous.
Back in the 1700s, scientists were still struggling to understandwhich theory of light was correct: was it composed of particles or wasit made of waves? Under the theory that light is waves, it was notclear how it would respond to gravity. But if light was composed of
particles it would be expected that they would be affected by gravityin the same way apples and planets are. This expectation grew when itwas discovered that light did not travel infinitely fast, but with a finitemeasurable velocity.
Armed with these facts, a paper was published in 1783 by John
Michell, in which he pointed out that a sufficiently massive compactstar would possess a strong enough gravitational field that light couldnot escape. Any light emitted from the star’s surface would bedragged back by the star’s gravity before it could get very far.
Not much was done over the next hundred years or so with theideas of Michell. This was mostly true because during that time, thewave theory of light became the most accepted one. And no oneunderstood how light, as a wave, could be affected by gravity. Then,in 1915 Albert Einstein proposed the theory of general relativity.General relativity explained, in a consistent way, how gravity affectslight. We now knew that while photons have no mass, they do possessmomentum. We also knew that photons are affected by gravitationalfields not because photons have mass, but because gravitational fields(in particular strong gravitational fields) change the shape of space-time. The photons are responding to the curvature in space-time, notdirectly to the gravitational field. Space-time is the four-dimensional“space” we live in. (also known as a Minkowski space – there are 3
spatial dimensions, think of x, y, and z, and one time dimension).Let us relate this to light travelling near a star. The stronggravitational field of the star changes the paths of light rays in space-time from what they would have been, had the star not been present.Specifically, the path of the light is bent slightly inward toward thesurface of the star. We see this effect all the time when we observedistant stars in our Universe. As a star contracts, the gravitational fieldat its surface gets stronger, thus bending the light more. This makes itmore and more difficult for light from the star to escape, thus it
appears to us that the star is dimmer. Eventually, if the star shrinks toa certain critical radius, the gravitational field at the surface becomes
so strong that the path of the light is bent so severely inward so that itreturns to the star itself. The light can no longer escape. According tothe theory of relativity, nothing can travel faster than light. Thus, if light cannot escape, neither can anything else. Everything is dragged
back by the gravitational field. We call the region of space for whichthis condition is true a “black hole”. A black hole is in essence a spacesingularity (a point in space where the curvature of the space-time isinfinit), surrounded by a horizon (the radial distance from thesingularity from which even light cannot escape).
Now, being scientists, we do not just accept theories likegeneral relativity or conclusions like photons have no mass. Weconstantly test them, trying to definitively prove or disprove. So far,general relativity has withstood every test. And try as we might, we
can measure no mass for the photon. We can just put upper limits onwhat mass it can have. These upper limits are determined by thesensitivity of the experiment we are using to try to “weigh the
photon”.
GENERAL VOCABULARY TECHNICAL VOCABULARY
to puzzle, v.= a pune înîncurcătură; a nedumerito figure out, v.= a înţelegeto point out, v.= a sublinia; aatrage atenţia asupraslightly, adv.= puţinto bend, v.= a îndoi; a curbadim, adj.= redus; micto shrink, v.= a (se) micşorato withstand, v.=a rezista
black hole = gaură neagrăwave, n.= undăto drag back, v.= a trage; a târîînapoi photon, n.= foton; cuantă deluminămomentum, n.= impuls;moment mecaniccurvature, n.= curbă path, n.= traiectorie
singularity, n.= punct singular velocity, n.= vitezăradius, n. = rază
COMPREHENSION
Answer the following questions:
a) Does light travel so fast that we cannot measure its velocity?
b) What was Michell’s opinion concerning the influence of gravity on light?
g) In the past, many scientists believed that light travelledacross the space like ……………….
h) Newton had to define the ………………. of a particle before explaining the law of acceleration.
3. Give the synonyms of the following words extracted from thetext: WORD SYNONYM WORD SYNONYM to absorb ………….. specifically …………… finite ………….. compact …………...massive …………. momentum ……………to affect …………. to withstand …………...path …………. to figure out …………..
4. Give the missing noun, adjective or verb corresponding to thefollowing words:
NOUN ADJECTIVE VERB
………………….………………….gravity/gravitation
………………….………………….
divisible………………….………………….
………………….………………….
…………………..to respond
…………………...
to contractto possess
5. Some of the words below are spelt incorrectly; pick them outand write down their correct version:
expectation emited to posessspecificaly momentum radius
1. a theory according to which space and time are relative.2. something that is oriented 1
toward the interior of a place3. a theory concerning light 2
put forward by Newton’s 3contemporary Huygens 44. a region in space where 5
the gravity is so great that 6not even light can escape. 75. a luminous point in the 8sky at night 96. a quantity expressing 10the motion of a body 117. something that exists in the space
8. something that is large9. you usually study it at mathematics when talking about circles10. a sort of elementary particle of light11. force of attraction generated by earth
7. Translate into English:
a) Una dintre problemele care i-a preocupat pe oamenii de ştiinţădin toate timpurile a fost să afle dacă lumina are într-adevăr
b) Momentul în care fizicienii au descoperit că viteza luminii poate fi calculată, au înclinat mai mult în favoarea teoriei particulelor decât cea a undelor.
c) În 1783, Michell a remarcat că o stea are un câmp gravitaţional
atât de puternic încât nici lumina nu poate scăpa.d) Fotonii, particule elementare ale luminii sunt menţinuţi încâmpul gravitaţional din cauza tendinţei acestuia de a modelaspaţiul.
e) Pe măsură ce o stea se contractă, câmpul gravitaţional devinemai puternic modificând traiectoria luminii.spre interiorulsuprafeţei acesteia.
FOCUS ON LANGUAGE
IF CLAUSES
If clauses or conditional sentences are made up of:a) a main clause
b) a conditional or “if” clause introduced by the followingconjunctions: if (dacă), unless (dacă nu), in case (în cazulcând), even if (chiar dacă), on condition that (cu condiţia ca),
provided that (cu condiţia ca), supposing (presupunând că)
1) If “will”, “should”, “would”, “may”, or “can” appear in aconditional clause, they are not auxiliaries of mood helping to formthe future or the conditional but modal auxiliaries.
If you’ll clean the room, I’ll bake a cake.
- (“will”) expresses willingnessIf you would see a doctor, I’ll take you to the zoo.If you may/can solve this problem we’ll leave earlier.
2) In order to express anteriority to the action of the verb of the mainclause we use present perfect
If you have finished your homework I’ll call a taxi.Remarks on the 2nd condition:As far as ”to be” is concerned, we use the form ”were” for all persons.
If she were here she would help me do the housework.
PRACTICE
8. Supply the correct tense of the verbs in brackets:
a) You’ll catch the disease if you (not leave) the hospital at once. b) He (not bring) you the newspaper if he had known that you
were sleeping.c) I could find this building very easily if I (know) the town.d) I wouldn’t have bought these clothes if I (see) their price.e) Unless they stop the fire alarm I (call) the Police.f) They might get angry if you (tell) them the news.g) She (not try) to take your place if she had known that you were
her sister.h) If he (to be) there he would work hard for this job.i) They would have visited New York if they (to have) enough
money.
j) She would drive to London if she (to have) a driving licence.
9. Put the verbs in brackets into the correct tense:
a) I shouldn’t drink that wine if I (be) you. b) If I had realized that the traffic lights were red I (stop).c) You’ll get pneumonia if you (not change) your wet clothes.d) If I (had) a map I would have been all right.e) If you (not belong) to a union you couldn’t get a job.
f) If he had known that the river was dangerous he (not try) toswim across it.
g) If I were sent to prison you (visit) me?h) You would play better bridge if you (not talk) so much.i) You (not get) into trouble if you had obeyed my instructions.
j) The flight may be cancelled if the fog (get) thick.
(Thomson, A.J.; Martinet, A.V., A Practical English Grammar,Exercises 1, 2 Oxford University Press, Oxford, 1986)
9. Translate into English:
a) Dacă i-ai fi explicat regulile cu răbdare le-ar fi înţeles cusiguranţă.
b) Dacă aş fi în locul lui aş învăţa totul pe dinafară.c) Ne vom petrece vacanţa la munte dacă vom reuşi să reparăm
maşina.d) Ar absolvi facultatea printre primii dacă ar învăţa mai mult
decât colegii săi.e) Nu ar fi privit la televizor în acea seară dacă i-ai fi interzis
acest lucru.f) Ar fi stat pe acea bancă toată ziua dacă nu ar fi fost proaspăt
vopsită.g) Dacă părinţii tăi pleacă la servici să nu deschizi uşa la nimeni.h) Tatăl tău ar fi făcut infarct dacă te-ai fi căsătorit cu acel bărbat.i) Ea ar plânge ore în şir dacă ar afla că părinţii ei au avut un
accident de maşină. j) Ar cânta toată ziua dacă vecinii nu i-ar cere să înceteze.
WRITING
Explain Einstein’s theory of relativity using your own words (no
more than 10 lines)
FUN TIME
Why did the chicken cross the road? Albert Einstein: Whether thechicken crossed the road or the road crossed the chicken depends onyour frame of reference.
Given that 1999 is the last year of the second millennium, it isworth enumerating the great physics achievements of the 20 th century,achievements that have transformed the way that humanity views theuniverse.(1) The Unraveling of the Microscopic Constituents of MatterThe concept of the atom had been hypothesized by Greeks two-and-half millennia ago. In the nineteenth century, the atom was thought to
be a spherical blob of more-or-less uniform density. Nowadays, it isknown that the atom possesses considerable structure: it consists of atiny, heavy nucleus around which light-weight, negatively chargedelectrons swarm.The name atom, which means “indivisible”, has become a misnomer,the atom is not the most fundamental building block since it isconstructed out of smaller units. Furthermore, the nucleus iscomposed of protons and neutrons, both of which weigh almost 2000
times the weight of an electron. As their names imply, the proton is positively charged while the neutron is neutral, having no electricalcharge. It was only in 1897 that the existence of the electron wasestablished; previously, electricity was thought to be the flow of aliquid rather than of microscopic particles. Thirty-five years ago,scientists believed that the basic constituents of matter were protons,neutrons and electrons. Since then, high-energy accelerators haverevealed that protons and neutrons are made up of three quarks.Quarks are microscopic entities with electric charges that are one-third
and two-thirds of the charge of the electron. In summary, scientistshave been able to divide matter into ever increasingly smaller units.
(2) Quantum MechanicsOne of the greatest scientific achievements of physics in the 20 th
century is the discovery of quantum mechanics. It governs thedynamics of microscopic objects such as atoms and electrons. One
feature of quantum mechanics is uncertainty. For example, the exact position of an electron in an atom is not knowable, instead theelectron’s position is probabilistically determined. Another feature of quantum mechanics is discreteness. For example, an electron in anatom can only assume particular types of motions, which are calledstates, and particular values for its energy, which are called energylevels.(3) The Discovery of the Vastness of the UniverseFew people realize how much our picture of the universe has changed
in 100 years. At the end of the 19 th century, the universe was thoughtto contain only hundreds of thousands of stars arranged in no
particularly interesting patterns. The most distant stars were thought to be about 100,000 light years away; 1 light-year is about 10 trillionkilometers. Today, astronomers have observed objects that are aboutten billion light years away. Furthermore, they have discovered thatthe universe contains many interesting structures. Amazingly, it wasnot until the 1920’s that it was realized that galaxies exist. Galaxiesare vast collections of stars. Most galaxies are pancake-shaped. Othersare ellipsoidal shaped, and still others are irregular in appearance. Thegalaxy in which the Sun and the Earth reside is called the Milky Way,a name that arose because the other stars in this spiral galaxy create a
band of whitish hue across the heavens, which can be observed withthe naked eye on a clear night sky.During the last three decades, astronomers have come to realize that10 to 1000 galaxies often group together- such a structure is called agalaxy cluster. There are also regions of the universe with relatively
few if any galaxies – these are known as giant voids. In summary, thesize of the visible universe is about 200,000 times larger than the sizethe scientists thought it was in 1899. We now have a reasonable
Answer the following questions:a. Does the Universe contain only stars?
b. What are the main characteristics of quantum mechanics?c. Why is the word “atom” considered to be a misnomer?d. What was the nineteenth century conception regarding the
atom?e. Can you define quarks?f. Why is our galaxy called “The Milky Way”?
PRACTICE
1. Mark the following sentences true (T) or false (F):
a. Quarks are microscopic particles having no electrical charges. b. Nowadays, the Universe is thought to contain many various
structures such as: stars, galaxies, voids.c. Before 1897, people considered electricity to be the flow of
microscopic particles.d. Quantum mechanics is marked by uncertainty since we cannotidentify the exact position of the electron.
e. Protons and electrons are made up of quarks.
2. Give synonyms to the following words extracted from the text:
mutual gravitation 43. a group of elements 54. having a globular 6form 7
5. an empty space 86. one of the two 9characteristics of 10quantum mechanics 117. everything that 12exists in the world including the Earth and its creatures, the heavenly
bodies and the space8. one of the constituents of matter
9. a word that is not appropriate to designate a person or a thing10. a synonym for ”sky”11. a branch of mechanics12. the boundless space
8. Translate into English:
În zilele noastre, termenul „atom” care înseamnă „indivizibil”,nu mai este reprezentativ deoarece s-a descoperit că acesta este
format la rândul lui din alte particule microscopice. Mecanica cuantică are mai degrabă implicaţii filozofice din
cauza nesiguranţei pe care o presupune în determinarea exactăa poziţiei electronului dintr-un atom.
Secolul 20 a adus multe informaţii noi cu privire ladimensiunile şi structura universului.
Astronomii au descoperit existenţa galaxiilor în anul 1920 şiau observat că ele au forme neregulate, elipsoidale,etc.
Galaxia noastră a fost numită Calea Lactee şi poate fiobservată cu ochiul liber în nopţile cu cer senin.
FOCUS ON LANGUAGE
THE INFINITIVE
- is the basic form of the verbI Form - long infinitive – when preceded by the particle “to”
I saw him get on the bus.I’ll have him apply for the job.
! They may be followed by the long infinitive (exception “let”) whenthey are used in the Passive Voice: He was made to sell the car.
e) Infinitive with “too” and “enough”I am too old to climb the mountain.I’m not clever enough to find the solution.
f) Infinitive after adjectives:1) to be + sure; glad; happy; surprised; relieved; astonished; sad
I’m glad to hear the news.2) to be + possible; impossible; easy; difficult; hard; necessary + for
+ pronounThis exercise is too difficult for me to solve it.
3) to be + kind; silly + of + pronounIt was kind of you to come to my party.
g) Infinitive after the following verbs in the Passive Voice: believe;consider; know; imagine; think; feel; supposeShakespeare is considered to be one of the greatest writers.
h) Infinitive after: the first; the second; the last; the onlyHe was the last to eat the cake.
i) Short infinitive after: would rather; had betterI’d rather go to the theatre.You’d better listen to his explanation.
PRACTICE
9. Recognize the grammar issues representative for the followingsentences extracted from the text and discuss them:The concept of the atom had been hypothesized by Greeks …………Quarks are microscopic entities with electric charges that are one thirdand two thirds of the charge of the electron.Given that 1999 is the last year of the second millennium, it is worthenumerating the achievements of the 20th century….The atom is not the most fundamental building block…..
In summary, scientists have been able to divide matter into smaller units.Quantum mechanics doesn’t provide information with regard to the
position of an electron in an atom but the electron’s position is
probabilistically determined.It was not until the 1920’s that it was realized that galaxies exist.
10. Translate into English using the words given in parentheses:
a) Părinţii mei nu-şi pot permite să cheltuiască atât de mulţi bani învacanţă. (afford)
b) Aţi putea să-mi daţi informaţii cu privire la zborurile de lunicătre Paris? (mind)
c) Această casă e prea scumpă ca s-o cumpărăm. Hai să căutămalta.
d) I-am cerut să vină cu mine dar m-a refuzat.e) Am reuşit să urc pe munte mai repede decât aş fi crezut.
(succeed)f) Prietena mea m-a sfătuit să accept ajutorul părinţilor pentru că
altfel voi pierde totul. (advise)g) Nu sunt obişnuită să dansez toată noaptea, dar în această seară
voi face o excepţie. (used to)h) Chris şi-a invitat toţi prietenii să vină la petrecerea de aniversare
a zilei de naştere.i) Ne-a implorat să-l ajutăm să ajungă la spital pentru că nu-şi mai
putea mişca picioarele. (beg) j) Aminteşte-mi, te rog, să iau legătura cu directorul firmei.k) N-am putut să renunţ la ieşirile mele cu prietenii aşa că ne-am
despărţit.(give up)l) Mai degrabă aş merge pe jos decât să iau autobuzul.
m) Îmi pare rău să aud că ţi-au interzis să mai conduci maşina dupătot ce s-a întâmplat.n) Am insistat să angajăm pe cineva bine pregătit în acest domeniu.o) Se preface că nu ştie despre ce vorbim dar te asigur că a aflat
totul înaintea noastră.
WRITINGImagine that you are a scientist who makes an importantdiscovery.
a) What's the difference between an auto mechanic and a quantummechanic?The quantum mechanic can get the car inside the garage withoutopening the door.
b) When people run around and around in circles, we say they arecrazy. When planets do it, we say they are orbiting.
c) The moon is more useful than the sun, because the moon shines atnight when you want the light, whereas the sun shines during the daywhen you don't need it.
(4) Special RelativitySpecial relativity, as developed by Einstein at the beginning of the 20 th
century, determines the dynamics of things traveling at high speeds.The effects of special relativity are only noticeable for objects movingat a reasonable fraction of the speed of light (300,000 kilometers per second). Fast-moving bodies behave in ways that are completelycounter-intuitive to us. One effect that has become widely known isthe equivalence of mass and energy as embodied in the famous
equation E=mc². The destruction of a small amount of mass producesan enormous amount of energy. This is the basis for atomic bombs. It
is also the source of energy and light in a star including our star, theSun. One interesting consequence of special relativity is theunification of time and space into a four-dimensional world.(5) General Relativity
Another great 20th
century contribution of Einstein is the generaltheory of relativity. It provides deep insights into the nature of gravity.In this theory, massive bodies such as the Earth and Sun causespacetime to curve, in the same way as a bowling ball – when placedon a bed – depresses the bed’s surface. An object in such a curvedspacetime no longer moves at a constant speed in a constant direction,it accelerates, just like a marble, when thrown onto the bed with the
bowling ball, moves toward the bowling ball. Since, by definition,forces are things that create accelerations, the curvature is seen to be
the source of gravitational force. Two interesting consequences of general relativity are the black hole and the expansion of the universe.(6) Subatomic ForcesIn the 18th century, three fundamental forces were known: gravity,magnetism and the electric force. By the end of the 19 th century, therewere only two fundamental forces: the magnetic and electric forceswere unified into one force, which is called electromagnetism. It turnsthat all magnetic fields are created by the motion of charge, andcharges are the source of the electric force. In 1899, scientists thoughtthat there were only two fundamental forces: gravity andelectromagnetism. But, during the 20th century, two new fundamentalinteractions were discovered. They are subatomic, meaning that theyact at scales much smaller than an atom and inside the nucleus. Thestrong nuclear force binds three quarks to form the proton andneutron. It also holds together the protons and neutrons in a nucleus.The weak subnuclear force is responsible for certain radioactive decayof nuclei.
Nowadays, the weak force and electromagnetism were unified. Thus,the fundamental forces are gravity, the electroweak interactions andthe strong nuclear force.(7) The History of the UniverseAt the end of the 19th century, the age of the Universe was thought to
be several hundred million years. Today, it is estimated to be about 15 billion years. Scientists now know that the Earth is 4.6 billion yearsold and that the first life forms emerged as primitive microscopicorganisms 3 billion years ago. In 1899, the ideas of Darwin had begun
to be accepted by a majority of people. Today, the relations betweenthe different life forms of the past have been mapped out with
impressive detail. The universe started as an extremely hotconcentration of mass and energy. As time advanced, the universeexpanded, meaning that the fabric of space stretched. Through thisstretching, material was dispersed and the universe cooled.
Eventually, gravity took hold of higher concentrations of matter causing them to collapse into galaxy clusters at larger scales and intostars at smaller scales. The process of star formation throughgravitational collapse continues today although at a slower rate.
GENERAL VOCABULARY TECHNICAL VOCABULARY
counter, adv. = contrar; opus
to embody, v. = a concretiza; areprezentainsight, n.= cunoaşteremassive, adj.= uriaş; vastto depress, v.= a apăsamarble, n.= bilă de granulatimpressive, adj.= impresionant
to curve, v.= a (se) arcui; a (se)
îndoiexpansion, n.= extindereto bind, v.= a face legătura; a legadecay, n.= dezintegrare radioactivăto emerge, v.= a apăreafabric, n.= structurăto stretch, v.= a (se) extindeto disperse, v.= a (se) împrăştia
COMPREHENSION
Answer the following questions:
a. Does Einstein’s special theory of relativity affect all objects? b. Can you mention some consequences of general relativity?c. How many forces do the scientists recognize today?
d. How old is our planet, the Earth?e. What was the Universe like at the beginning?
PRACTICE
1. Mark the following sentences true (T) or false (F):
a. Objects that are placed in the curved spacetime created by the
Earth and the Sun tend to move at a constant speed.
b. Although the Universe started as a hot concentration of massand energy, later it cooled as a result of its expansion.
c. Einstein’s famous equation E= mc² is used in the creation of atomic bombs.
d. Unlike the nuclear force which is strong indeed, the subnuclear one is weak leading to a radioactive decay of the nuclei.e. Forces are things that produce changes in the movement or
shape of a body or system.
2. Give synonyms to the following words extracted from the text:
- to disperse …………… - to stretch ……………..- collapse …………… - insight …………….
- to decay …………… - to emerge ……………- to expand …………… - fabric ……………
3. Do you know who won the Nobel Prize for………….
the discovery of energy quanta ? the discovery of the remarkable X rays ? the discovery of spontaneous radioactivity ?
his fundamental work in quantum electrodynamics withimportant consequences for the physics of elementary particles his services to Theoretical Physics and especially for his
discovery of the law of the photoelectric effect ? his work on the elementary charge of electricity and on the
photoelectric effect ? the discovery of the neutron ?
4. Discover the word written down by solving the crosswordpuzzle: 1
4.the branch of 8astronomy that deals 9with the structure 10and evolution of the 11universe5. is in essence a point in space where the curvature of the space-time isinfinite.6. forces that bind particles inside the atomic nucleus.7. the forces and motions that characterize a system.8. consisting of a large mass9. the plural form of the word “nucleus”10. time and three dimensional space treated together as a single four-
dimensional object
11.to change spontaneously into one or more different nuclei in a processin which particles are emitted from the nucleus, electrons are capturedor lost.
5. Translate into English:a) Ideea de bază a teoriei relativităţii este că timpul şi distanţele unui
eveniment măsurate de doi observatori au, în general, valoridiferite dar se supun întotdeauna aceloraşi legi fizice.
b) Relativitatea generală postulează că prezenţa de masă şi energie
conduce la „curbura” spaţiului şi că această curbură influenţează
traiectoria altor obiecte, inclusiv a luminii, în urma forţelor gravitaţionale.
c) Teoria Universului în expansiune reprezintă versiunea cea mairecentă care explică modul cum a luat naştere Universul: o sferă
măruntă s-a aprins dintr-o dată şi a explodat dând naştere la sori, planete şi galaxii luminoase.d) Forţa tare nucleară asigură coeziunea nucleelor atomice; ea este
legată de comprimarea quarkurilor şi nucleonilor, fuziunea şifisiunea nucleelor şi poate fi detectată doar în imediata vecinătatea particulelor.
e) Universul conţine circa un miliard de roiuri de galaxii, iar un roimediu de galaxii include circa o mie de galaxii. Galaxiile suntconsiderate ca fiind atomii universului.
FOCUS ON LANGUAGE
THE GERUND- is formed by adding the “-ING” suffix to the verb- expresses an action that is simultaneous with the action
expressed by the finite verbI enjoyed reading her book.
The gerund is used after:a) transitive verbs: to avoid; to forgive; to excuse; to enjoy; to
intend; to prefer; to keep; to stop, to suggest, to admit, to deny;to imagine; to mindYou must avoid staying up till late.
b) prepositional verbs: to agree on; to insist on; to complainabout/on; to succeed in; to aim at; to accuse of; to believe in;to prevent from; to rely on
He succeeded in repairing the car.c) adjectives + preposition: to be afraid of; to be proud of; to beresponsible for; to be good atShe is afraid of leaving him.
d) nouns + preposition: difficulty (in); reason (for); objection(to); apology (for); astonishment (at)My brothers have difficulty in reading.
e) expressions: can’t stand; can’t help; it’s no use; it’s no good;it’s worth
THE “ING” PARTICIPLE- is formed by adding the suffix “-ING” to the verb
The Present Participle is used :a) to form continuous tenses: She is reading now.
b) as adjective: the sleeping child; the rising temperature; etcc) after: 1) verbs of perception: to hear; to notice; to see;to observe; to smell
He heard his father screaming loudly.
2) causative verbs: to get; to haveHe had us all crying.
3) verbs such as: to catch; to find; to keep; to leave;to spend; to waste
He caught her reading his diary.4) after “to go”: She went shopping.
PRACTICE
6. Put the verbs between brackets in the gerund:a) I don’t mind (to clean) the windows but I’d like to eat first.
b) He stopped (to cry) when he heard his mother’s voice.c) I don’t feel like (to sleep) when I know that he is sad.d) She couldn’t help (to buy) those dresses.e) Is it worth (to pay) so much for this trip to England?f) I hate (to lie) to him but I have no other choice.g) I’m looking forward (to read) your first novel.h) He advised (to put) her toys in the children’s room.i) I got used (to write) my homework late in the evening.
j) I enjoy (to travel), (to dance) and (to swim).
7. Choose the correct answer:
1. (Aţi putea să-mi daţi) the sugar?a. Do you mind passing me c. Would you mind passing meb. Do you mind to pass me d. Would you mind to pass me
2. George (nu obişnuieşte să bea) coffee for breakfast.a. isn’t used to drinking c. doesn’t use to drink b. isn’t used to drink d. doesn’t use to drinking
3. I can’t remember (ca eu să fi discutat) this problem with Tom.
a. discussing c. that I discussedb. to discuss d. me to discuss
4. I’m sure that your mother saw you (aruncând) the bottle through thewindow.
a. to throw c. threwb. thrown d. throwing
5. (Ne pare rău să vă informăm) that we haven’t received your application yet.a. We regret to inform you c. We regret to inform youb. We regret informing you d. We regret in informing you
6. Jim’s wife is a teacher and she (nu se poate abţine să-I spună) her husband what to do.a. can’t help from telling c. can’t help tell
b. can’t help to tell d. can’t help telling7. (E inutil să încerci) to make him change his mind. He’s very
stubborn.a. It’s no use try c. It’s no use to try
b. It’s no use in trying d. It’s no use trying8. The meeting had been going on for more than two hours when thechairman suggested (să se ia o pauză de cafea)a. having a coffee break c. to have a coffee break
b. have a coffee break d. that we’ll have a coffee break 9. (Nu intenţionam să mănânc) anything but the cake looked so goodthat I couldn’t say “No”.a. I didn’t mean eating c. I didn’t mean to eat
b. I didn’t mean that I’ll eat d. I didn’t mean eat10. (De ce te împotriveşti cumpărării) a new computer for our office?a. Why do you object to buy c. Why do you object to buying
b. Why do you object we buy d. Why do you object that you buy(Pawlowska, Barbara; Kempinski, Zbigniew, Teste de limba engleză,Ed. Teora, Bucureşti, 1997)
8. Translate into English by using a gerund or a gerundialconstruction:a) Nu are rost să mergi pe jos, te voi duce eu cu maşina.
b) Nu pot să-mi permit să cumpăr toate aceste cărţi.c) Mama a continuat să spere că Tom se va întoarce cândva
acasă.d) Aţi putea să-mi spuneţi unde pot să-l găsesc pe directorul
băncii?e) Ei au terminat de scris compunerile pe la 10 dar încă le mai
corectează.f) Sunt atât de obosită! Nu am chef să ies în oraş cu prietenii.
g) Merită să-ţi petreci vacanţa pe litoral în această perioadă aanului.
h) Am sugerat să dăm o petrecere pentru a sărbători cel maiimportant eveniment din viaţa lui.
i) Ea este obişnuită să vorbească ore întregi fără să obosească. j) El preferă să se plimbe cu bicicleta decât să-şi facă temele.k) Nu-mi place să iau micul dejun atât de devreme.l) A renunţat să fumeze când a aflat că era grav bolnavă.m) Regret că i-am spus adevărul despre moartea tatălui ei.n) Îmi amintesc că am auzit un zgomot în camera de alături în
timp ce vorbeam la telefon.o) M-am săturat să-i explic adevăratele motive ale demisiei mele.
p) Mary se plânge că nu are suficiente probe ca să-l bage la
închisoare.q) Am evitat să-i răspund la telefoane atunci când m-am mutat în
alt oraş.r) Riscăm să ne pierdem toţi banii dacă continuăm să pariem la
cursele de cai.s) Este mândru să joace alături de cei mai talentaţi actori ai
teatrului din Bucureşti.t) Nu sunt responsabilă de plecarea lui la Paris.
9. Put the verbs in brackets into the correct form: When I caught him (steal) money from the drawer, he
begged me (not tell) his family about it. He admitted (commit) the crime but he refused (talk) to a
lawyer. It’s no use (ask) Mary (take care) of your pets. She
dislikes (feed) them. He made me (pay) a fine for (drive) fast.
After (get on) the train he realized that he didn’t reallyenjoy (travel) and began (think) of a way (return) home.
They offered (lend) me money and suggested (take) ashort vacation.
He’d better (learn) the rules by heart because teachersdon’t tolerate (cheat) during an examination.
It’s difficult for me (argue) with the boss because I’mafraid of (lose) my job.
He was expected (arrive) at 6 o’clock but he came later and apologized for (keep) us (wait).
THE CONTRIBUTION OF PHYSICS TO THE INFORMATIONAGE (I)
Some people may believe that 20th and 21st century physics researchhas less of a direct impact on their daily lives than biology, chemistry,engineering, and other fields. Perhaps they think of physics as anabstract, enigmatic, or purely academic endeavor.Nearly everyone would agree that the computer, the transistor, and
the World Wide Web are among the greatest inventions of the 20thcentury. Economists and laymen alike know that today's entire world
economy is inextricably linked to these technologies. The daily livesof a large fraction of Earth's inhabitants would be substantiallydifferent were it not for their inventions. Most would agree thatAmerica's preeminence in computer and information technology is atleast partly responsible for its status as an "economic superpower."The wealth of other nations such as Japan, Taiwan, countries inWestern Europe, and others is also due, in part, to their embracementof and contributions to the information age.The electronic digital computer, the transistor, the laser, and even the
World Wide Web were all invented by physicists. These inventionsmake up the foundation of modern technology.
ComputersThe first electronic digital computer was built in the basement of the
physics department at Iowa State University in 1939 by Professor John Atanasoff, who had a Ph.D. in theoretical physics and his physicsgraduate student Clifford Berry. It is amazing to think that thecomputer industry, now worth in the hundreds of billions of dollars,owes its existence to a brilliant physics professor and his talented
graduate student. Their computer used 300 vacuum tubes to performcalculations, capacitors to store binary data and punched cards tocommunicate input/output. Unlike the old mechanical addingmachines which used direct counting, the new computer utilized
logical operations to perform addition and subtraction.
TheTransistorIn 1947, young physicists at Bell Laboratories in New Jersey insertedtwo gold contacts 1/64th of an inch apart from each other into a slabof germanium and, by wiring up some electronics, discovered that thesignal coming out of this semiconductor had at least 18 times the
power of the signal going in -- in other words, they had achievedamplification!
The physicists—John Bardeen, Walter Brattain and William Shockleyhad invented the transistor, which opened the way to thetelecommunications revolution and the information age. The transistor is thought by many to be the most important invention of the 20thcentury. Some consider its invention to have marked the beginning of the field of solid state physics one of the most active and importantareas of physics research today.The transistor is the building block of all modern electronics andcomputers (everything from a battery operated watch, to a coffeemaker, to a cell phone, to a supercomputer). Microprocessors for modern personal computers contain around 55 million transistorseach.
GENERAL VOCABULARY TECHNICAL VOCABULARY
endeavor, n.= efort; strădanielayman, n.= nespecialistinextricably, adv.= în aşa fel cănu se poate descurca preeminence, n.= întâietateembracement, n.= adoptare basement, n.= subsol;to owe, v.= a datora
vacuum tube n.= tub electroniccu vidcapacitor, n.= condensator to store, v.= a memora; aînregistra punch card, n.= cartelă perforată;mijloc învechit de introducere adatelor în calculator input/output, n.= intrare/ieşire
2. a machine for making calculations or controlling operationsthat are expressible in numerical or logical terms.
3. to deduct4. the primary medium for data storage and processing5. a computer file or data stream interpreted as a sequence of
encoded numerical values.6. a handheld pointing device for computers7. a device that stores energy in the electric field8. to handle papers or records by systematically organizing them9. a device used to amplify or modify a signal10. one of the output devices11. one of the input devices12. a data storage device that stores data on a magnetic surface
5. Find the meaning of the following computer abbreviation:
PC .................................. HTML ...............................
IBM ................................. RAM ...............................CD-ROM .......................... USB ..............................
www ......................... IT ..............................
URL ......................... DOS ..............................
HTTP ......................... DVD ..............................
6. Complete the missing words in the paragraph using vocabularyitems from the text studied above:The Atanasoff-Berry Computer (ABC), constructed in the _ _ _ _ m _
_ _ of the Physics Building at Iowa State University took over twoyears to complete due to lack of funds. The computer weighed morethan 320 kg, contained 1.6 km of _ _ _ _ and 280 dual-triode _ _ _ u_
_ _ _ b_ _ . The memory of the Atanasoff-Berry Computer was a pair of drums, each containing 1600 _ _ _ a _ _ _ _ _ _ .The machine used
_ i _ _ _ _ digits to represent all numbers and data and performedcalculations using _ _ _ c _ _ _ _ _ _ _ . Because of its innovative use
8. Pay attention to the following phrasal verb extracted from thetext studied above:
TO MAKEto make away with = to get rid of; to destroy;to make out = to understand; to imply; to suggestto make over = to transfer; to give; to transformto make for = to go forward; to approachto make up = to prepareto make up for = to compensate for; to make goodto make of = to understand; to interpretto be made up of = to be composed
9. Translate the following sentences into English using “make” asa phrasal verb:
Bătrânul doctor a donat toate bunurile sale orfelinatului dinoraşul său natal.
Ştiu că este urât dar are alte calităţi care compenseazădefectele fizice.
Niciodată nu pot să înţeleg ce-mi scrie doctorul pe reţetă. Deşi amestecul a fost preparat conform indicaţiilor bucătarului,
prăjitura nu a ieşit aşa cum trebuia. S-a opri să vorbească cu mine apoi s-a îndreptat direct spre
Universitate pentru a vedea rezultatele examenului. Procurorul a distrus toate dovezile care-l incriminau pe nepotul
său. Moleculele sunt formate din particule mai mici numite atomi.
10. Spot the mistakes in the following sentences and write downtheir correct version:
The basic distinction among modern computers andearly mechanic devices is that this devices could only
be used to make a limited number of tasks. Modern electronic computers have enormous speed and
capacity for informations procesing. The team who developped ENIAC, recognising his
flaws, came out with a more flexible and elegant designwhich is the basis from which all modern computerswere derived.
Computers designed during the 1950’s were eventualy
replaced with transistor-based computers which weresmaler, more faster and more reliable. A tipical personal computer include input and output
devices.
11. Translate into English:
a) Computerul modern este un sistem electronic de prelucrare ainformaţiilor pe baza unor operaţii complexe.
b) Un computer este format din partea de hardware şi cea desoftware. Hardware-ul cuprinde toate elementele ce compun uncomputer, adică circuitele care leagă între ele tranzistoare.
c) Parte de software se referă la toate programele şi datele utilizate decomputer.
d) Hardware-ul este alcătuit dintr-o unitate centrală, din dispozitivede intrare (tastatură; mouse; scanner), dispozitive de ieşire(monitor; imprimantă), dispozitive de stocare şi modem.
e) Trebuie să facem o distincţie clară între computer şi alte
dispozitive electronice cum ar fi calculatoarele de buzunar care potexecuta numai câteva operaţii matematice.
f) Cel dintâi computer electronic ABC a avut probleme în special lasistemul de alimentare cu cartele perforate.
1. with nouns mentioned or known My brother has a new car. The car is big and red.2. with nouns considered unique The Earth moves round the Sun.3. with nouns used in their mostgeneral sense
The monkey is a funny creature.
4. is used before superlatives He is the most handsome boy inthe class.
5. with nouns converted fromadjectives, nationality and groupnouns
He should obey the rich.the French; the middle class
6. is used before ordinal numerals the first; the second7. with proper nouns denoting awhole family
the Browns
8. with proper nouns denotingcountries; islands; chains of mountains; deserts; oceans; seas;rivers; trains; newspapers;
magazines
the United States; the Bahamas;the Alps; the Sahara; the PacificOcean; the Black Sea; theThames; the Orient Express; the
Time9.with nouns followed by a prepositional phrase, a relativeclause, or an apposition
The letter from London; thewoman who gave me thenewspaper; Tom, the postman,
10. in phrases To tell the time; by the way; onthe whole
The Indefinite Article
1. to introduce a new piece of information.
There is a mistake in your exercise.
2. instead of the numeral “one” I’ve bought a book and five pencils.
3. with nouns used in their mostgeneral sense
A baby requires special care.
4. in expressions of measurement 10$ a kilo; three times a week
5. with nouns denoting a profession; religion; class He is a teacher. She is a Christian.
6. with proper nouns denoting anunknown person or a person withcertain characteristics
A Mr. Smith came to see you. Heis a Don Juan.
7. in phrases once in a while; all of a sudden;
as a matter of fact; etc
The Zero ArticleUses Examples
1. with uncountable nouns or plural nouns used in the generalsense
Oil is lighter than water.
2. before vocatives Listen John!3. indefinite numeric function They ate bananas.4. with nouns like: school;church; hospital; prison whenthey are used for their primary
I’d like to go to …… United States but I don’t have enoughmoney to buy …….. airplane ticket.
He invited me to spend a whole week in ……… England andhire a boat to go for a trip along ……….. coast.
In the past, on Sundays, …… people usually went to …….church and pray for their fellow men.
I can’t tell you …….. exact day of his anniversary but I think it’s in …….. January.
He had …….. terrible car accident last week because of …….fog.
……… most people pay by check when they buy ……. car. We made ……. terrible mistake when we talked to his lawyer.
I need …… orange and two apples to make a juice. The manager left for …….. couple of days in ……. Europe to
consult with his partner on …… company’s advertisingcampaign.
The shop you are looking for is just at …… corner of …….oldest building in ……. London.
……… money you gave me last week is on ……. table in……. living-room.
When ……… increase, ……. poor are always suffering.
13. Insert definite, indefinite or zero articles:a) Out of ignorance he made ……….. mistake after ………
mistake. b) They sailed through ……….. Straits of Magellan.c) I thought about it ………. day and ……….. night.d) I went from ……….. to ………. singing.e) She settled down to sip ………. tea from ……….. cup.
f) ………….. Chinese language is totally unlike Japanese.g) His second book , just on ……….. market in France is due for ……….. publication in Britain in February.
h) The novel created …………. great sensation.i) He was killed in ……….. battle.
j) She is on ………….. vacation in ……… Hebrides.
(***, Limba engleză – exerciţii pentru admiterea în învăţământulsuperior, Ed. Didactică şi Pedagogică, Bucureşti, 1978)
THE CONTRIBUTION OF PHYSICS TO THE INFORMATIONAGE ( II )
Before the invention of the transistor, computers used vacuum tubes.It took one of these large vacuum tubes to do the same job as atransistor, the smallest of which today are only 80 atoms wide.Computers using vacuum tubes filled huge rooms, but were not
powerful by today's standards. In 1945 the U.S. Army built a vacuum
tube computer called the Eniac, proposed by and developed in part by physicist John Mauchly who borrowed many of the ideas and design
from physicist John Atanasoff. The ENIAC cost about $500,000, took up a room the size of a suburban home, used 18,000 vacuum tubes andwas the fastest computer of its time. The vacuum tubes and coolingsystem used huge amounts of electric power.
But despite its size and cost, the vacuum tube-based ENIAC was onlycapable of about 1000 math operations per second, compared toaround 1 billion operations per second for today's transistor-basedcomputers.Thanks to transistors, today's personal computers can pack all their computational power into a tiny microchip the size of cracker thatcosts only a couple hundreds bucks and uses very little electricity. If amodern notebook computer were made using vacuum tubes, the tubes,
power system, wiring and cooling equipment would fill an entire
skyscraper! It has also been calculated that a cell phone would be thesize of the George Washington monument. Vacuum tubes were notonly big, expensive, and hot, they were also unreliable and would burnout frequently. Because the tubes actually glowed and gave off heat,they attracted moths and other bugs, which caused short circuits.Scientists would have to periodically "debug," which literally meantshutting down the computer and cleaning out the dead bugs.The affordability, small size, and power of modern computers and
electronics would never have been achieved without the invention of the transistor. The information age as we know it simply would notexist.
The World Wide WebIn the 1980s, the thousands of physicists at CERN Particle PhysicsLaboratory in Geneva needed a better way to exchange informationwith their colleagues working in different universities all over theworld. Tim Berners, a graduate from Oxford University in Physics,
invented the World Wide Web in 1990 to meet this demand. Alongwith creating the first web browser and web server, he developed thesoftware conventions that are keys to the Web's usefulness, withacronyms like URL and HTTP.Between 1990 and 1993, the Web was mostly used by scientists tocollaborate their research. In 1993 it began to spread to the rest of theworld, and now already the majority of Americans surf the Web. Thenumber of websites has grown from just 130 in June 1993 to around 9million in 2002. Now over a trillion dollars worth of commerce takes
place over the Internet every year! Much of this e-commerce is doneover the World Wide Web. (As you may know, the terms Web and
Internet do not mean the same thing. The Web uses the Internet but isnot the only communication service on it. Before the invention of theWeb, few people in the general population used the Internet, but it didexist. What began as a better way for physicists to manage
information and communicate--the World Wide Web--is now a vast"global information superhighway," accessible to all.In 1999 Time magazine dubbed Berners-Lee one of the 100 greatestminds of the century. In 2004, he won the first annual MillenniumTechnology Prize, an "international acknowledgement of outstandingtechnological innovation that directly promotes people's quality of life," with an award of $1.2 million.
GENERAL VOCABULARY TECHNICAL VOCABULARY
to borrow, v.= a împrumutacracker, n.= biscuitskyscraper, n.= zgârie-noriunreliable, adj.= nesigur moth, n.= molie bug, n.= insectăacknowledgement,n.= recunoaş-tereoutstanding, adj.= remarcabil
to pack, v.= a depune mai multeinformaţii în aceeaşi unitate destocareto debug, v.= a detecta erorileunei componente hardwareto shut down, v.= a închide un program sau sistem de operareweb browser, n.= aplicaţie care permite unui utilizator săvizualizeze documentele din“world wide web”web server, n.= server ceutilizează HTTP pt. a livradocumente şi fişiere atunci cândeste solicitatacronym, n.= prescurtarecomputational power = putere de
calculCOMPREHENSION
Answer the following questions:
a. Why did ENIAC cost so much? b. What were the main disadvantages of vacuum tubes?c. Was the World Wide Web a necessary invention? Why?d. Why did the first computers need to be periodically debugged?
e. Are the internet and the web one and the same thing?
1. Mark the following sentences true (T) or false (F):
a. The ENIAC was built during the World War II being inspired byAtanasoff’s computer. b. The ENIAC was really efficient using small amounts of electric
power.c. It was the discovery of the transistor that led to the development
of modern computers.d. The World Wide Web was created as a necessity of scientists to
communicate.e. The Web has become an accessible source of information all
over the world.
2. Read the text and find synonyms for the following words:
WORD SYNONYM WORD SYNONYMto cooperate …………… high-priced ……………recognition …………… biscuit ……………remarkable …………… to suggest ……………
to assign …………… abbreviation ……………3. Pay attention to the following phrasal verb extracted from thetext studied above:
TO TAKEto take after = to resembleto take back = to return somethingto take down = to write down
to take for = to assume to beto take from = to subtractto take in = to accept; to deceive; to provide lodging for; to observeto take off = to remove; to leave the ground (as an airplane);
to withdraw from serviceto take on = to hire; to employ; to undertake/to assume responsibilitiesto take out = to withdraw/ to remove (a handkerchief)/ to invite
somebody for a walk to take up = to occupy oneself with the study of smth.; to occupy
4. Fill in the blanks using “take” as a phrasal verb:
I’d like to take your sister ………. from time to time but she
always refuses my invitation. I must take ……… French again if I want to go to France. The plane will take ………… in half an hour. I don’t think John takes ……….. his father. It is difficult for a seven-year old child to take six ………
twelve. My job takes ……… too much time so I can’t visit you too
often.
As she didn’t like the author, she took the book ………to thelibrary. He took out a small ring and gave it to his little sister. She took the girl’s testimony ………… in shorthand. He doesn’t want to have a child because he doesn’t like to take
………….. responsibilities. I can’t do that! Do you take me ……… a fool?
5. Complete the missing words in the paragraph using vocabularyitems from the text studied above:
ENIAC was the first electronic _ _ _ _u_ _ _ capable of solving a fullrange of computing problems. It was _ e_ _ _ _ _ _ _ and built byMauchly in May 1943. However, physically, ENIAC was a monster; itcontained 17,468 _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _, 10,000 _ _ _ a_ _ _ _ _ _ andconsumed 160 kw of _ _ _ e_. The first problems run on the ENIACwere related to the use of vacuum tubes. They _ u_ _ _ _ out almost
every day, leaving the computer nonfunctional about half the time.Most of these failures occurred during the _ a_ _ up and _ o_ _ down periods. The longest continuous period of operation without a failurewas close to five days. Given to the _ e_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ available at thetime, the failure rate was remarkably low and stands as a tribute to the
precise engineering of ENIAC.
6. Spot the mistakes in the following sentences and write downtheir correct version:
a) Descoperirea transistorului este considerată una dintre cele maimari descoperiri ale erei moderne fiind folosit pentru a amplifica,comuta, stabiliza şi modula diverse semnale.
b) Webul este un sistem hipertext ce operează pe internet şi care estevizualizat cu ajutorul unui program numit browser.c) Protocolul HTTP este cea mai folosită metodă de accesare ainformaţiilor.d) HTML ul ajută la prezentarea documentelor text pe o singură
pagină, folosind browserul web.
e) Computerele ies relativ repede din actualitate datorită apariţiei unor tehnologii noi ce oferă posibilitatea de a mări puterea unor computerede dimensiuni mici.
FOCUS ON LANGUAGEDIRECT / REPORTED (INDIRECT) SPEECH
2. “Would”, “should”, “ought (to)”, “used (to)”, “must”, “need” do notchange.I advised her that she should be more careful.3. In conditional clauses
PRACTICE
10. Indirect speech: mixed types
a) “Don’t worry about a few mistakes,” said Peter. “I make mistakesall the time”.“Do you learn from your mistakes?” I asked. “Or do you keep making
the same ones?” b) “I’m looking for a man called Albert, who drinks in this bar,” Isaid. “I should keep away from Albert if I were you,” said the barman.“He doesn’t like strangers”.c) “You woke everyone up last night”, said my mother. “You must tryto be quieter tonight”.“We will,” I promised.d) “The soup is cold again,” complained Mr. Jones. “Why do I never have hot soup?”“Because the kitchen is so far from the dining room,” explained hiswife.e) “Your licence is out of date,” said the policeman.“It is,” I admitted, “but I have applied for a new one.”f) “It’s your turn to baby-sit tonight,” they told Ann.“It can’t be!” said Ann indignantly. “I baby-sat last night! And thenight before!”g) “I’ve run out of stamps,” said my father. “Have you got any?”
“No, but I’ll go out and get you some if you like,” I said.h) “Why are you looking so depressed, Jack?” I said.“Because I’ve just asked Ann to marry me and she’s refused,” he saidsadly.i) “Are you ill? He said coldly“No.” I said“Did you sleep well last night?”“Yes,” I said.“Then why are you sitting about when all the others are working? Go
out at once and give them a hand.” j) “What shall I do with my wet shoes? said the boy.
“You’d better put them near the fire!”(Thomson, A.J.; Martinet, A.V., A Practical English Grammar,Exercises 1, 2 Oxford University Press, Oxford, 1986)
11. Change the following from Direct to Indirect Speech usingsome of the reporting verbs at the head of the exercise:
a) My sister said “Don’t swim in the river; it’s too deep and youmight get drowned”.
b) “Come in and take a seat; you must wait for Tom because hewants to tell you something important” said Jane.
c) “If you don’t give me money, I’ll sell the car” said John.d) “Let’s go out and have some fun” said Mary.e) “You are five minutes late and your eyes are red. It’s obvious
that you have been crying again” said John.f) “I’ll buy you this car, I promise” my father said to me.g) “You’ve completely changed since the last time I saw you”
Mary exclaimed with delight.h) My father asked me “What are you doing with this hammer?”i) My elder sister said “I’ve been watching TV the whole
afternoon”. j) The teacher asked him “Why didn’t you bring me your test
paper?”
FUN TIMEQ: "How many computer scientists does it take to change a light
bulb?"A: "Five. Two write the specifications, one to prove their validity andtwo to implement it."Q: "Well, how many hackers does it take?"A: "One. But, hackers don't turn on the lights." LIST OF IRREGULAR VERBS
