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Curs LIMBA ENGLEZA Anul 1, Sem I - Gramatica

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    I. THE NOUN........................................................................................................................................................................... ...21.1. Kinds and function.............................................................................................................................................................2

    1.2. Gender................................................................................................................................................................................2 1.3. Plurals............................................................................................................................................................................3

    1.3.1. Uncountable nouns (also knon as non!count nouns or "ass nouns#........................................................................$1.%. T&e for" of t&e 'ossessie)*enitie case...........................................................................................................................+

    1.,. Use of t&e 'ossessie)*enitie case and of - noun...........................................................................................................+1.. /E0IN ! NOUN..........................................................................................................................................................

    II. TI45E/.............................................................................................................................................................................1%2.1. T&e definite article...........................................................................................................................................................1%

    2.2. O"ission of t&e................................................................................................................................................................12.3. T&e indefinite article........................................................................................................................................................1

    2.%. T&e 6ero article.................................................................................................................................................................1

    2.,. /E0IN ! TI45E....................................................................................................................................................27III. 89E4TI:E/.......................................................................................................................................................................23

    3.1. Kinds of ad;ecties...........................................................................................................................................................23

    3.2. Order of ad;ecties of

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    I. THE NOUN

    1.1. Kinds and function

    A There are four kinds of noun in English:

    Common nouns: dog, man, table

    ro!er nouns:France, Madrid, Mrs Smith, Tom

    A"stract nouns: beauty, charity, courage, fear, joy

    Collecti#e nouns: crowd, flock, group, swarm, team

    1.$. %ender

    A &asculine: men' "o(s and male animals )!ronoun he/they).

    *eminine: +omen' girls and female animals )!ronoun she/they).

    Neuter: inanimate things' animals +hose se, +e don-t kno+ and sometimes

    "a"ies +hose se, +e don-t kno+ )!ronoun it/they).

    E,ce!tions: shi!s and sometimes cars and other #ehicles +hen regarded +ith

    affection or res!ect are considered feminine.

    Countries +hen referred to "( name are also normall( considered feminine.

    The ship struck an iceberg, which tore a huge hole in her side.

    Scotland lost many of her bravest men in two great rebellions.

    &asculine/feminine nouns denoting !eo!le

    1 0ifferent forms:

    boy, girl

    gentleman, lady

    son, daughter

    bachelor, spinster

    husband, wife

    uncle, aunt

    bridegroom, bride

    man, woman

    widower, widow

    father, mother

    nephew, niece

    duke, duchess

    king, queen

    prince, princess

    earl, countess2

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    lord, lady

    $ The maorit( of nouns indicating occu!ation ha#e the same form:

    artist cook driver guide assistant dancer doctor etc.

    &ain e,ce!tions:

    actor, actress

    host, hostess

    conductor, conductress

    manager, manageress

    heir, heiress

    steward, stewardess

    2ometimes person is used instead of man, woman! salesperson, spokesperson.

    C 0omestic animals and man( of the larger +ild animals ha#e different forms:

    bull, cow

    duck, drake

    ram, ewe

    stallion, mare

    cock, hen

    gander, goose

    stag, doe

    tiger, tigress

    dog, bitch

    lion, lioness

    1.3. lurals

    A The !lural of a noun is usuall( made "( adding s to the singular:

    day, days

    dog, dogs

    house, houses

    s is !ronounced /s/ after p' kor fsound. Other+ise it is !ronounced /4/.

    5hen s is !laced after ce' ge' se or zean e,tra s(lla"le )/i4/6 is added to the

    s!oken +ord.

    Other !lural forms

    Nouns ending in oor ch' sh' ss or xform their !lural "( adding es:

    tomato, tomatoes

    brush, brushes

    bo", bo"es

    church, churcheskiss, kisses

    3

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    Nouns

    The nouns hoof, scarf and wharf takeeither sor vesin the !lural:

    hoofs or hooves

    scarfs or scarves

    wharfs or wharves

    Other +ords ending inforfeadd sin the ordinar( +a(:

    cliff, cliffs

    handkerchief, handkerchiefs

    safe, safes

    A fe+ nouns form their !lural "( a #o+el change:

    foot, feet

    louse, lice

    mouse, mice

    woman, women

    goose, geese

    man, men

    tooth, teeth

    child children

    o", o"en.

    Names of certain creatures do not change in the !lural.fish is normall(

    unchanged'fishes e,ists "ut is uncommon. 2ome t(!es of fish do not normall(

    change in the !lural:

    #arp pike salmon trout cod plaice squid turbot mackerel"ut if

    used in a !lural sense the( +ould take a !lural #er". Others add s:

    crabs herrings sardines eels lobsters sharks

    $eer and sheep do not change: one sheep, two sheep.

    The +ord game, used "( s!ortsmen to mean an animal/animals hunted' is

    al+a(s in the singular and takes a singular #er".

    Collecti#e nouns' crew, family, team etc.' can take a singular or !lural #er"7

    singular if +e consider the +ord to mean a single grou! or unit:

    %ur team is the best or !lural if +e take it to mean a num"er of indi#iduals.

    %ur team are wearing their new jerseys.

    Certain +ords are al+a(s !lural and take a !lural #er":

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    #lothes, garments consisting of t+o !arts breeches pants pyjamas

    trousers etc. and tools and instruments consisting of t+o !arts:

    &inoculars pliers scissors spectacles glasses scales shears

    etc.

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    A num"er of +ords ending in ics, acoustics, athletics, ethics, hysterics,

    mathematics, physics, politics etc.' +hich are !lural in form' normall( take a

    !lural #er":

    'is mathematics are weak. ut names of sciences can sometimes "econsidered singular:

    Mathematics is an e"act science.

    5ords !lural in form "ut singular in meaning include news!

    The news is good

    And certain diseases:

    mumps rickets shinglesand certain games:

    billiards darts draughts bowls dominoes

    $ The first +ord is made !lural +ith com!ounds formed of #er" 8 er

    nouns 8 ad#er"s:

    hangerson lookerson runnersup and +ith com!ounds

    com!osed of noun 8 !re!osition 8 noun: ladiesinwaiting sisters

    inlaw wards of court

    3 Initials can "e made !lural:

    M(s )&em"ers of arliament6 )*(s )#er( im!ortant !ersons6 %+(s )old

    age !ensioners6 F%s )unidentified fl(ing o"ects6

    1.3.1. Uncounta"le nouns )also kno+n as non9count nouns or mass nouns6

    1 Names of su"stances considered generall(:

    &read, cream, gold, paper, tea, beer, dust, ice, sand, water, cloth, gin,

    jam, soap, wine, coffee, glass, oil, stone, wood

    - A"stract nouns:

    advice, e"perience, horror, pity, beauty, fear, information ,

    relief, courage, help, knowledge, suspicion, death, hope, mercy, work

    3 Also considered uncounta"le in English:

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    "aggage' damage' luggage' sho!!ing' cam!ing' furniture' !arking

    +eather

    1.. The form of the !ossessi#e/geniti#e case

    A -s is used +ith singular nouns and !lural nouns not ending in s:

    a mans job the peoples choice

    mens work the crews quarters

    a womans intuition the horses mouth

    the butchers /shop0 the bulls horns

    a childs voice womens clothes

    the childrens room 1ussias e"ports

    A sim!le a!ostro!he )-6 is used +ith !lural nouns ending in s:

    a girls school the students hostel

    the eagles nest the Smiths car

    C Classical names ending in s usuall( add onl( the a!ostro!he:

    (ythagoras Theorem +rchimedes 2aw Sophocles plays

    0 Other names ending in s can take -s or the a!ostro!he alone:

    Mr 3oness /or Mr 3ones house0 4eatss /or 4eats0 poems

    1.;. Use of the !ossessi#e/geniti#e case and of 8 noun

    A The !ossessi#e case is chiefl( used of !eo!le' countries or animals as

    sho+n a"o#e. It can also "e used:

    1 Of shi!s and "oats: the ships bell, the yachts mast

    2 Of !lanes' trains' cars and other #ehicles' though here the of

    construction is safer:

    a gliders wings or the wings of a glider

    the trains heating system or the heating system of the train

    3 In time e,!ressions:

    a weeks holiday, todays pape, tomorrows weathe, in two years time,

    ten minutes break, two hours delay,

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    . 5ith for 8 noun 8 sake:for heavens sake, for goodness sake

    , In a fe+ e,!ressions such as:

    a stones throw journeys end the waters edge

    E=CI2E. Turn into the plural!

    1. Englishman $. 2!aniard 3. Chinese . *renchman ;. ole

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    13. %reek 1. Australian 1;. a!anese 1E=CI2E #hoose the right form of the verb !

    1. a6 The committee )consist' consists6 of 1$ mem"ers.

    "6 The committee )has' ha#e6 come to a common !oint of #ie+.

    $.a6 &( friend-s famil( )is' are6 small.

    "6 The famil( )+as' +ere6 aslee! +hen +e arri#ed.

    3. a6 The !ress )is' are6 kindl( reDuested to lea#e the Conference Hall'

    "6 The !ress )is' are6 al+a(s !resent on such occasions.

    %. a6 The audience )+as' +ere6 taking their seats.

    "6 The audience )+as' +ere6 a!!lauding enthusiasticall(.

    ,. a6 The mo" )has' ha#e6 "een fighting among themsel#es for some time'

    "6 A mo" )is' are6 a disorderl( cro+d.

    . a6 The Education oard )is' are6 arguing a"out the cost of te,t"ooks'

    "6 The 2election oard )has' ha#e6 selected the "est !u!ils from the can9

    didates.

    $. a6 The go#ernment )has' ha#e6 announced further +age rises.

    "6 The go#ernment )stand' stands6 firm in refusing to make further

    concessions.

    @.a6 The ne+ Ca"inet )+as' +ere6 the result of his "argaining +ith the

    center9left !arties'

    "6 The ne+ Ca"inet )is' are6 reluctant to look into it.

    .a6 A flock of shee! )has' ha#e6 in#aded m( garden.

    "6 ook outF Gour flock )is' are6 stra(ing in all directions.

    1B.a6 The Arm( )has' ha#e6 sei4ed !o+er.

    "6 The in#ading Arm( )+as' +ere6 defeated.

    11. a6 Canada )is' are6 "ilingual.

    "6 Canada )has' ha#e6 got into the semi9finals again.

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    E>E=CI2E. #hoose the singular or plural form. Translate into 1omanian!

    1. colour a6 I sim!l( hate this . . ..

    b#Gou must stand still +hen the countr(-s ... is "eing raised.

    c# &( fa#ourite . .. are "lue and "eige.$. custom a6 Gou ha#e to declare e#er(thing at the ....

    b# 2he +as !ri#ileged to get acDuainted +ith this ... of the

    urundians.

    c# Hand shaking is one of the most freDuent... in Euro!e.

    3. damage a6 I-ll ha#e to !a( for the ...

    "6 In case of fire the insurance com!an( +ill !a( the ..... ground a6 Gou must ha#e solid . . . if (ou +ant to ask for a di#orce.

    b#5hat +as the .. . of this Duarrel

    c# Children ha#e taken good care of their s!orts . . .

    ;. minute a6 Ho+ man( . . . does it take to get to the office

    b#5e +anted him to read the ... of the !re#ious meeting.

    c#5ait a . . . F

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    1B. s!irit a6 That-s the right. . .

    b# Ho+ can (ou "elie#e in ...

    c# I shall ne#er touch . . . again.

    d# Is there no ... in (our lighter

    E>E=CI2E.Form feminine nouns from the following masculine nouns using

    the following suffi"es! 9ess' 9i,' 9a' 9ine:

    Actor' host' she!herd' administrator' sultan' god' lion' !rior' negro' hero'

    !rince' tiger' heir' +aiter.

    E>E=CI2E. a6 7ive the corresponding masculine nouns of the following femi

    nine nouns9 b0 then give the generic term, if any!

    &O0E: a6 mother father

    "6 mother father !arent

    Jueen' +oman' +ife' daughter' nun' lad(' sister' goose' "ee' duck' grand9

    daughter.

    E>E=CI2E.2ist the feminine nouns in the -nd column and the generic nouns

    in the :rd column so as to correspond to the masculine nouns in the ;st

    column!

    hog mare !ig/s+ine

    cock #i,en deer

    hound hen dog"uck e+e o,

    "ull "ee horse

    drone "itch fo+l

    stallion hind fo,

    fo, co+ shee!

    ram doe deer

    stag so+ cattle

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    E>E=CI2E. 7ive the masculine of!

    ride' girl9friend' maidser#ant' female candidate' !olice+oman'

    lad( foot"aller' +oman di!lomat' lad( s!eaker' s!inster' lad(' nurse' female

    student.

    E>E=CI2E . +rrange the following nouns into two columns according to

    their usual gender when personified in poetry, etc. 1emember that the

    masculine gender is usually ascribed to nouns denoting strength,

    harshness, cruelty, and negative features while those denoting delicacy,

    feebleness, tenderness and other positive features are feminine. %n the

    other hand, the distinction sometimes depends on the authors imagination

    or intentions!

    *riendshi!' anger' "oat' fur(' shi!' terror' car' crime' moon' s!ring'

    storm' morning' thunder' e#ening' slee!' night' sun' !ride' time' truth' fear'

    soul' death.

    E>E=CI2E 3. Substitute synthetic genitive forms for the prepositional

    genitive forms. The former are generally used with animate nouns, mainlywith persons, with collective nouns /e.g. government, company0, and with

    certain kinds of inanimate nouns denoting! a6 geographical names

    /continents, countries, cities, towns09 "6 locative nouns denoting regions,

    heavenly bodies, institutions /e.g. the regions welfare, the earths core, the

    suns impact, the #lubs band07 c6 temporal nouns /e.g. yesterdays reception,

    this years anniversaries07 d6 nouns of the type! body, mind, science, life,treaty, play, book, car, ship etc. /e.g. the plays success, the ships captain,

    sciences progress0!

    1. The ne+ car of his friend is a *iat 1$;. $. 5hat do (ou kno+ a"out the

    climate of this countr( 3. I admired the hats of the ladies. . He has "een

    stud(ing the folklore of 5Tales for three (ears. ;. 5hat-s the name of the ne+

    t(!ist of the manager

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    s!ring . These are the "est !aintings of Turner. 1B. He +on-t sa( a +ord

    a"out the !ur!ose of his life. 11. The interests of the %o#ernment lie else+here.

    1$. 5hat do (ou kno+ a"out the 5ar of a Hundred Gears 13. The future of

    Africa is in the hand of its o+n !eo!les. 1. The "louses of the sho!9girls are

    the "est ad#ertisment. 1;. o" doesn-t e#en kno+ the time9ta"le of his child.

    1

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    C the 8 singular noun can re!resent a class of animals or things:

    The whale is in danger of becoming e"tinct.

    The deepfree

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    The wedding breakfast was held in her fathers house.

    , efore names of games:'e plays golf.

    efore !arts of the "od( and articles of clothing' as these normall(

    !refer a !ossessi#e adecti#e:1aise your right hand. 'e took off his coat.

    ut notice that sentences of the t(!e:

    She sei

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    2imilarl( +e can "e:

    in bed, slee!ing or resting in hospital as !atients

    at church as +orshi!!ers at school etc. as students

    in court as +itnesses etc.

    5e can "e/get "ack )or "e/get home6from school5college5university.

    5e can leave school, leave hospital,"e releasedfrom prison.

    5hen these !laces are #isited or used for other reasons the is

    necessar(:

    / went to the church to see the stained glass.

    'e goes to the prison sometimes to give lectures.

    C sea

    5e go to sea as sailors. To "e at sea to "e on a #o(age )as !assengers

    or cre+6. ut to go to or "e at the sea > to go to or "e at the seaside.5e

    can also li#e by5near the sea.

    0 work and office

    work ) !lace of +ork6 is used +ithout the:

    'es on his way to work. 'e is at work.

    'e isnt back from work yet. Note that at work can also mean

    -+orking-7 hard at work >+orking hard:

    'es hard at work on a new picture, office ) !lace of +ork6 needs

    the:'e is at5in the office. To "e in office )+ithout the) means to hold an

    official )usuall( !olitical6 !osition. To "e out of office > to "e no longer in

    !o+er.

    E town

    the can "e omitted +hen s!eaking of the su"ect-s or s!eaker-s o+n

    to+n:

    8e go to town sometimes to buy clothes.

    8e were in town last Monday.

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    $.3. The indefinite article

    Its =omanian eDui#alent: un' o.

    Ais used in front of consonants: e.g. a good man' a ma!' a +indo+ and an

    is used in front of #o+els: an a!!le' an im!ortant issue.

    The indefinite functions as a numeral: one hundred L a hundred

    Used to sho+ the num"er of ha!!enings during a gi#en !eriod of time:

    once a +eek' one a!!le a da(

    Used +ith nouns denoting o"s +hen after the #er" to "e: I am a la+(er.

    )eu sunt a#ocat6

    5hen the noun is uniDue' then it doesnMt need the indefinite article: He

    is chairman.

    Used as a!!ositions: Ir#ing' a !rose +riter' ..

    Used in e,!ressions: for a time' lend me a hand' once u!on a time' to set

    an e,am!le' to !a( a call on' to ha#e a mind to' once in a "lue moon.

    $.. The 4ero article

    ero article is used to e,!ress generalities' +hole categories and not

    indi#idual items.

    Children +ill "e children

    Clothes do not make the man

    arking dogs seldom "ite.

    2u"stance names: Oil is lighter than +ater7 lood is thicker than

    +ater.

    5ith a"stract nouns: o#e is a no"le feeling7

    efore human names: &ichael' %eorge' 0ais(

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    Names of continents' countries' !ro#inces' regions' counties' to+ns'

    cities' #illages: Euro!e' Africa' 5allachia L e,ce!tions: the Ukraine'

    the United 2tates' the Argentine' the Congo.

    &onths of the (ear' da(s of the +eek

    E,!ressions: from time to time' "( means of' at random' "( sea' on

    sale' at da+n.

    $.;. 2E&INA= 9 A=TICE

    E>E=CI2E1.*nsert definite or indefinite articles.

    1. I ha#e ordered . . . +ashing machine and . . . +ashing machine has

    come. $ . . . climate does not suit me. 3. Ho+ did . . . !ress recei#e it .

    2ince lunch +as not read( (et' m( hus"and read . . . !a!er for a +hile' then

    he rose from . . . armchair and turned on . . . tele#ision. ;. I mentioned

    "ridge7 he +as #er( good at. . . game.

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    rature. 1B. The res!onsi"ilit( of. . . !arents is stressed in the 0eclaration on

    the =ights of. . . Child. 11. . . . fello+ does a lot of cra4( things +hen he has

    "een drinking. 1$. . . . man has left his im!rint here too. 13. 5hat can .

    man do +hen he is cast on a far9off island 1. . . . )ru""er t(re' do' not'

    make a noise6. 1;. . . . )first offender6 should "e treated +ith s(m!ath(.

    1E=CI2E3.Supply the necessary article! E=CI2E.Supply the necessary article! definite or

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    . (outh look do+n on oldtimers. ;. A humane leader is lo#ed "( . . . !eo!le.

    E=CI2E ;. *nsert definite or

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    Atlantic.

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    amused, horrified, tired etc.' are !assi#e and mean -affected in this

    +a(-.

    The play was boring. )The audience +as "ored.6

    The work was tiring. )The +orkers +ere soon tired.6

    The scene was horrifying. )The s!ectators +ere horrified.6

    an infuriating woman )2he made us furious.6

    an infuriated woman )2omething had made her furious.6

    C Agreement

    Adecti#es in English ha#e the same form for singular and !lural'

    masculine and feminine nouns:

    a good boy, good boys, a good girl, good girls

    The onl( e,ce!tions are the demonstrati#e adecti#es this and that,

    +hich change to these and those"efore !lural nouns:

    this cat, these cats that man, those men

    3.$. Order of adecti#es of Dualit(

    A 2e#eral #ariations are !ossi"le "ut a fairl( usual order is: adecti#es of(a# si4e

    (b# general descri!tion )e,cluding adecti#es of !ersonalit(' emotion6

    (c# age

    (d# sha!e

    (e#colour

    (f#material(*# origin

    )h6 !ur!ose )these are reall( gerunds used to form com!ound

    nouns: walking stick, riding boots0.

    a long sharp knife

    a small round bath

    new he"agonal coins

    blue velvet curtains

    an old plastic bucket

    an elegant French clock

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    TO&:&ut the smaller it is, the less it will cost us to heat.

    C %radual increase or decrease is e,!ressed "( t+o com!arati#es oined

    "( and:

    The weather is getting colder and colder. 'e becameless and less interested.

    the 8 adecti#e +ith a !lural meaning

    A blind, deaf, disabled, healthy/sick, living/dead, rich/poor,

    unemployed and certain other adecti#es descri"ing the human

    character or condition can "e !receded "( the and used to re!resent a

    class of !ersons. These e,!ressions ha#e a !lural meaning7 the( take a!lural #er" and the !ronoun is they:

    The poor get poorer9 the rich get richer. the can "e used in the same

    +a( +ith national adecti#es ending in ch or sh:

    the $utch the Spanish the 8elsh and can "e used similarl( +ith

    national adecti#es ending in se or ss:

    the &urmese the #hinese the 3apanese the Swiss

    though it is ust !ossi"le for these to ha#e a singular meaning.

    :.A. ossessi#e adecti#es

    my

    your

    his5her5its

    ouryour

    their

    A ossessi#e adecti#es in English refer to the !ossessor and not to the

    thing !ossessed. E#er(thing that a man or "o( !ossesses is his thing7

    e#er(thing that a +oman or girl !ossesses is her thing:

    Toms father is his father"ut

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    Marys father is her father. E#er(thing that an animal or thing

    !ossesses is its thing:

    + tree drops its leaves in autumn.

    + happy dog wags its tail. ut if the se, of the animal is kno+n'

    his/her+ould often "e used. If there is more than one !ossessor'

    their is used:

    The girls are with their brother.

    Trees drop their leaves in autumn. Note that the !ossessi#e

    adecti#e remains the same +hether the thing !ossessed is singular or

    !lural:

    my glove, my gloves his foot, his feet

    C To add em!hasis' own can "e !laced after my, your, his etc. and

    after one#s:

    my own room her own idea own can "e an adecti#e'

    as a"o#e' or a !ronoun:

    a room of ones own

    Note the e,!ression:

    *m on my own > *m alone.

    3.E=CI2E1. #hoose the appropriate adjective. 6ote that $ic alternates

    with $ical with a difference of meaning!

    1. I am fond of classic / classical languages. $. Caragiale-s !la( QThe ost

    etterQ is a comic / comical master!iece. 3. E#er("od( has reali4ed that "ig

    cars are not economic / economical to run. . It has taken long (ears of I

    historic B historical research to gather all the data a"out this historic /

    historical building. ;. The =o(al allet-s !erformance of QThe Nut9crackerQ

    +as a classicC classical one.

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    that comic B comical old hat on. @. &an( an innocent man has gone to the

    electric B electrical chair. . He is Duite an e,!ert in electric / electrical

    engineering.

    E>E=CI2E$. 7roup the adjectives listed below under the three heads ofthe table.

    Note that there are t+o regular +a(s of marking the categor( of

    com!arison in English7 a6 "( means of 9er in the com!arati#e and )the6 9est

    in the su!erlati#e )the s(nthetic com!arison6 +ith monos(lla"ic adecti#es7

    "6 "( means of the !eri!hrastic forms +ith more and the) most )the

    anal(tic com!arison6' incase of !luris(lla"ic adecti#es. A series ofmonos(lla"ic adecti#es' such as: calm, cross, fit, fond, frank, scarce, grave,

    prompt dis!la( "oth !atterns. &an( dis(lla"ic adecti#es dis!la( "oth

    !atterns too. It is t(!icall( the case +ith adecti#es ending in 9(' 9o+' 9le' $er

    such as: clumsy, sallow, humble, clever, as +ell as the follo+ing adecti#es:

    handsome, common, polite, quiet, pleasant, precise, sincere etc.

    sl(' +icked' con#enient' foolish' acti#e' #ague' afraid' common' red'+ounded' thin' !rett(' startling' stu!id' "ig' health(' correct' ali#e' fertile'

    +orth(' !leasant' minute' eager' cruel' tiring' remote' earl(' comic' sim!le'

    eas(' tender' lo+' calm' sore' fast' ust' docile' !ro!er' distinct' high'

    sincere.

    a6 9er "6 more8Ad. S6 a6 9er7 )the6 9est /

    )the6 9est )the6 most8Ad. "6 more 8 Ad. )the6

    most 8 Ad.

    E>E=CI2E3.(rovide the irregular degrees of comparison of the following

    adjectives. 1emember that some of them have two forms of degrees of

    comparison !

    1. good' $. "ad / ill' 3. little' . near' ;. much / man('

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    E>E=CI2E. se the correct form of the adjectives in brackets!

    1. 5hat is the )late6 information (ou-#e got $. Her )old6 "rother is called

    im. 3. 5e +ere in a hurr( to catch the )late6 "us. . 5hich is )old6 of the

    t+o ;. 5ho is the )old6 mem"er of the students- clu"

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    E>E=CI2E

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    2entence: certainly, definitely, luckily, surely

    0egree:fairly, hardly, rather, quite, too, very

    Interrogati#e: when@ where@ why@=elati#e: when, where, why

    .$. *orm and use

    The formation of ad#er"s +ith ly

    A &an( ad#er"s of manner and some ad#er"s of degree are formed "(

    adding l( to the corres!onding adecti#es:

    final, finally immediate, immediately slow, slowly

    2!elling notes

    (a#A finaly changes to i: happy, happily.

    (b# A final e is retained "efore ly: e"treme, e"tremely.

    E,ce!tions: true, due, whole"ecome truly, duly, wholly.

    (c#Adecti#es ending in a consonant 8 le dro! the e and add (: gentle,

    gently simple, simply

    Note that the ad#er" of good iswell.

    Adecti#es ending in ly

    daily, weekly, monthly etc.' kindly and sometimes leisurely can "e

    adecti#es or ad#er"s' "ut most other adecti#es ending in ly, e.g.

    friendly, likely, lonely etc.' cannot "e used as ad#er"s and ha#e no

    ad#er" form. To su!!l( this deficienc( +e use a similar ad#er" or

    ad#er" !hrase:

    likely )adecti#e6probably )ad#er"6

    friendly )adecti#e6 in a friendly way )ad#er" !hrase6

    C 2ome ad#er"s ha#e a narro+er meaning than their corres!onding

    adecti#es or differ from them. coldly, coolly, hotly, warmly are

    used mainl( of feelings:

    8e received them coldly, )in an unfriendl( +a(6

    They denied the accusation hotly, )indignantl(6

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    She welcomed us warmly, )in a friendl( +a(6

    utwarmly dressed +earing +arm clothes.

    coolly % calmly/courageously or calmly/impudently:

    'e behaved very coolly in this dangerous situation. presently

    % soon:'ell be here presently.

    Ad#er"s and adecti#es +ith the same form

    A back hardD little rightE

    deepE highE long shortE

    directE ill low still

    early justE much5more5mostE straight

    enough kindly nearE well

    far lateE prettyE wrongE

    fast left

    Used as ad#er"s: Used as adecti#es:

    #ome back soon. the back door

    4ou can dial 1ome direct.the most direct route

    The train went fast. a fast train

    They worked hard, )energeticall(6 The work is hard

    an illmade road 4ou look ill5well

    Turn right here. the right answer

    She went straight home. a straight line

    'e led us wrong. This is the wrong way.

    2tarred +ords a"o#e also ha#e ly forms. Note the meanings.

    deeply is used chiefl( of feelings:

    'e was deeply offended.

    &irectly can "e used of time or connection:

    'e ;; be here directly, )#er( soon6

    The new regulations will affect us directly5indirectly.

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    'ighly is used onl( in an a"stract sense:

    'e was a highly paid official. They spoke very highly of him.

    (ustly corres!onds to the adecti#eust )fair' right' la+ful6' "utust can

    also "e an ad#er" of degree.

    *ately % recently:'ave you seen him lately@

    .3. Com!arati#e and su!erlati#e ad#er" forms

    A 5ith ad#er"s of t+o or more s(lla"les +e form the com!arati#e and

    su!erlati#e "( !utting more and most"efore the !ositi#e form:

    ositi#e Com!arati#e 2u!erlati#e

    quickly more quickly most quickly

    fortunately more fortunately most fortunately

    2ingle9s(lla"le ad#er"s' ho+e#er' and early, add er, est:

    hard harder hardest

    early earlier earliest )note the ( "ecomes i6

    Irregular com!arisons:

    well better best

    badly worse worst

    little less least

    much more most

    far fartherfarthest )of distance onl(6

    furtherfurthest )used more +idel(6

    . osition of ad#er"s

    Ad#er"s of manner

    A Ad#er"s of manner come after the #er":

    She danced beautifully or after the o"ect +hen there is one:

    'e gave her the money reluctantly. They speak =nglish well.

    0o not !ut an ad#er" "et+een #er" and o"ect.

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    5hen +e ha#e #er" 8 !re!osition 8 o"ect' the ad#er" can "e either

    "efore the !re!osition or after the o"ect:

    'e looked at me suspiciously or'e looked suspiciously at me. ut if

    the o"ect contains a num"er of +ords +e !ut the ad#er" "efore the

    !re!osition:

    'e looked suspiciously at everyone who got off the plane.

    Ad#er"s of time

    A afterwards, eventually, lately, now, recently, soon, then,

    today, tomorrow etc. and ad#er" !hrases of time: at once, since

    then, till )

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    4ou have often been told not to do that.

    'ave you ever ridden a camel@

    Order of ad#er"s and ad#er" !hrases of manner' !lace and time +hen the(

    occur in the same sentence

    E,!ressions of manner usuall( !recede e,!ressions of !lace:

    'e climbed awkwardly out of the window.

    'e d study happily anywhere.

    Time e,!ressions can follo+ e,!ressions of manner and !lace:

    They worked hard in the garden today.

    'e lived there happily for a year.

    .;. In#ersion of the #er"

    In#ersion of the #er" after certain ad#er"s

    Certain ad#er"s and ad#er" !hrases' mostl( +ith a restricti#e or negati#e

    sense' can for em!hasis "e !laced first in a sentence or clause and are then

    follo+ed "( the in#erted )i.e. interrogati#e6 form of the #er". The most

    im!ortant of these are sho+n "elo+. The num"ers indicate !aragra!hs

    +here an e,am!le +ill "e found.

    hardly ever on no account

    hardly . . . when 6 only by

    in no circumstances only in this way

    neither5nor only then5when

    never scarcely ever

    no sooner . . . than scarcely . . . when

    not only seldom

    not till so

    nowhere

    ;. 'avent got a ticket. 6either56or have *.

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    -. * had never before been asked to accept a bribe. 6ever before

    had * been asked to accept a bribe.

    :. They not only rob you, they smash everything too. 6ot only do

    they rob you, they smash everything too.

    G. 'e didn t reali

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    )"ad' "adl(6. 13. &r. ones held it )tight' tightl(6. 1. It +as si, o-clock as

    )near' nearl(6 as he could guess. 1;. )last' lastl(6 I must account for m(

    sister-s "eha#iour.

    E>E=CI2E 3. 1ewrite these sentences substituting 9l( adverbs for the

    italiciE=CI2E. 7ive the degrees of comparison of the following adverbs!

    &uch' "rightl(' Duietl(' e,!ressi#el(' "adl(' Duickl(' late' fast' high'

    often' +ell' s+iftl(' far' little' slo+l(.

    E>E=Ci2E ;. 1ewrite the following sentences using the adverbs in

    parantheses in the correct degree of comparison!

    1. In a large cit( (ou must cross the street )carefull(6 than in a small one.

    $. He +alked )far6 than I did. 3. lease s!eak )slo+l(6' so that I can take

    notes. . 2he mo#ed )a+k+ardl(6 an ele!hant. ;. He re#ie+ed her +ork

    )unfa#ora"l(6 than 0i,on did.

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    E>E=CI2EA&E: ohn "roke ohnMs arm.

    AN25E=:ohn "roke his arm.

    The noun that a !ronoun re!laces is the antecedent of the !ronoun.

    E>A&E:

    http://fill/http://fill/http://fill/
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    Carmen and oan +alked into the theatre. It +as so dark that the(

    could "arel( see the floor.

    )Theatre is the antecedent of it. Carmen and oan are the antecedents

    of the(.6

    he antecedentusuall( a!!ears "efore the !ronoun. ronouns ma( "e

    the antecedents of other !ronouns

    E>A&E: HE eno(s HI2 free time. )He is the antecedent of his6

    A pronoun must agree with its antecedent in number.

    If the antecedent is singular' the !ronoun must "e singular. If the

    antecedent is !lural' the !ronoun must "e !lural

    There are se#en kinds of !ronouns:

    !ersonal'

    demonstrati#e'

    refle,i#e'

    intensi#e'

    interrogati#e'

    relati#e' and

    indefinite.

    ;.1. ersonal !ronouns

    ersonal ronouns are the largest grou! of !ronouns. The( ha#e different

    form to e,!ress !erson' num"er' and gender.

    E,!ressing !erson

    5hen (ou +rite or s!eak a"out (ourself' (ou use first9!erson

    !ronouns: I' me' +e' us.

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    it is used in e,!ressions of time' distance' +eather' tem!erature' tide:

    8hat time is it@ I *t is si". 8hats the date@ I *ts the third of

    March

    'ow far is it to 4ork@ I *t is G?? kilometres.

    'ow long does it take to get there@ I *t depends on how you go.

    *t is raining5snowing5free

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    ;.. 0emonstrati#e !ronouns

    0emonstrati#e !ronouns tell +hich one or +hich grou! is referred to. A list

    of demonstrati#e !ronouns follo+s: THAT THI2 THE2E THO2E

    THI2 and THE2E !oint to !eo!le or things that are near in s!ace or time.

    THAT or THO2E !oint to !eo!le or things that are farther a+a( in s!ace or

    time.

    E>A&E 1: THI2 is a ne+ "ook.) the antecedent of THI2 is "ook6

    E>A&E $: THO2E are rare coins. )the antecedent of THO2E is rare

    coins6

    ;.;. =efle,i#e !ronouns

    =efle,i#e ronouns are used to indicate that !eo!le !erform actions TO'

    *O=' or UON themsel#es. Gou form refle,i#e !ronouns +ith the suffi,es

    9self' and 9sel#es.

    *I=2T E=2ON: m(self' oursel#es

    2ECON0 E=2ON: (ourself' (oursel#es

    THI=0 E=2ON: himself' herself' itself' oneself' themsel#es.

    E>A&E 1: rad "um!ed himself on the knee. )rad !erformed the

    action of "um!ing u!on himself.6

    E>A&E $: The Hanson CHI0=EN "uilt themsel#es a tree house. )The

    Hanson children "uilt a tree house for themsel#es6

    ;.A&E 1: 5HO +as at the door

    E>A&E $: 5HICH do (ou !refer

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    E>A&E 3: 5HO& did (ou elect

    ;.?. =elati#e !ronouns

    =elati#e ronouns introduce adecti#e clauses' +hich are +ord grou!s that

    modif( a +ord or a !hrase. A list of refle,i#e !ronouns follo+s.

    5ho 5hose That 5hom 5hich

    E>A&E 1: I kno+ the E=2ON +ho li#es here. )E=2ON is the

    antecedent of +ho6

    E>A&E $:He !lanted *O5E=2 that "loom e#er( (ear. )*O5E=2 isthe antecedent of that6

    =emem"er' that INTE==O%ATIRE =ONOUN2 introduce JUE2TION2

    onl(.

    ;.@. Indefinite !ronouns

    Indefinite ronouns do not refer to a definite !erson' !lace or thing7

    instead the( refer to !ersons' !laces or things in general.

    The follo+ing indefinite !ronouns are singular. The( are used +ith the

    singular !ossessi#e !ronouns HI2' HE=' and IT2.

    Another an(thing e#er("od( neither one

    an("od( each e#er(one no"od( some"od(an(one either e#er(thing no one someone

    E>A&E: Each of the o"s has IT2 re+ards.

    The follo+ing indefinite !ronouns are !lural. The( are used +ith the !lural

    !ossessi#e THEI=.

    oth man( fe+ se#eral

    E>A&E: &an( of the #ie+ers e,!ressed THEI= o!inions.

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    The follo+ing indefinite !ronouns can "e either singular or !lural'

    de!ending on their meaning in the sentence.

    All 2ome None

    ;.. 2E&INA= L =ONOUN

    E>E=CI2E1.Substitute possessive pronouns for the italiciE=CI2E$. se the possessive pronoun instead of the possessive

    adjective!

    &O0E: He is one of her fans. He is a fan of hers.

    1. He is one of m( friends. $. Tom lent his friend one of his "ooks. 3. I

    ga#e him one of our dictionaries. . 2he !la(ed one of her old records. ;.

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    2ome of their neigh"ours had come o#er to tea. E=CI2E3.Fill in the blanks with the suitable refle"ive pronouns!

    1. If the child eats so little he-ll make . . . ill. $. Can a fi#e9(ear9old "o(

    +ash . . .' dress . . . ' feed . . . 3. 5e find it still difficult to e,!ress ... in

    English. . Alice hurt. . . +hen she fell do+n the tree. ;. The( are likel( to

    ha#e eno(ed ... at (our !art(.

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    mone( on )them7 themsel#es6 11. 5hen he +as )him/himself6 again she

    +as too ha!!( to Duestion him. 1$. 5e-ll !lace our !a!er in front of

    )us/oursel#es6. 13. I am dee!l( touched to "e offered hel! "( so eminent a

    man as )(ou/(ourself6. 1. He takes too much u!on )him/himself6. 1;. *or

    some"od( like )me/m(self6 this is no sur!rise. 1E=CI2E


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