Carte Gramatica Limbii Engleze in Scheme, CataragaA (1)

7/28/2019 Carte Gramatica Limbii Engleze in Scheme, CataragaA (1)

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Gramatica limbii engleze n tabele i scheme

Gramatica limbii engleze n tabele i scheme este o lucrare ce cuprinde morfologia i sintaxa. Ea esteelaborat pentru studentii al caror scop este de a studia limba englez. Aceest carte are drept obiective de

baz familiarizarea i asimilarea de ctre studeni a structurilor gramaticale de baz ale limbii engleze,folosirea prilor de vorbire precum i evitarea dificultilor ntmpinate de ctre studeni n utilizarea acestor

pri de vorbire i a categoriilor lor gramaticale. Lucrarea dat cuprinde de asemenea, sistemul timpurilorverbale, corespondena timpurilor, vorbirea direct i indirect mbinarea cuvintelor n propoziie i a

propoziiilor n fraz.

INTRODUCTION

;"


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TABLE OF CONTENTS

PART I: MORPHOLOGY

Grammatical structure of the English language.General classification of the parts of speech.

THE NOUNDefinitionMorphological and syntactical characteristicsMorphological compositionClassificationThe category of numberThe category of case

The category of gender

THE ARTICLEUse of articles with common nounsUse of articles with proper nounsSpecial difficulties in the use of articlesAbsence of articles

THE ADJECTIVEDefinitionMorphological and syntactical characteristicsMorphological compositionClassification

THE ADVERBDefinition


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ClassificationDegrees of comparison

THE PRONOUNDefinitionClassification

THE NUMERALDefinitionClassification

THE WORDS OF THE CATEGORY OS STATE

THE VERBDefinitionGrammatical categoriesTypes of verbsTenses in the Active Voice

The Present IndefiniteThe Present ContinuousThe Past SimpleThe Past ContinuousThe Present PerfectThe Present Perfect ContinuousThe Past PerfectThe Past Perfect ContinuousThe Future IndefiniteGoing to constructionThe Future Continuous

The Future Perfect SimpleThe Future Perfect ContinuousThe Future In The Past SimpleThe Future In The Past ContinuousThe Future Perfect In The PastThe Future Perfect Continuous In The PastTenses in the Passive VoiceThe formation of the Passive VoiceThe use of tenses in the Passive VoiceThe use of the Passive Voice

Modal VerbsMoodsThe Imperative MoodThe Subjunctive MoodThe Conditional Mood

THE NON-FINITE FORMS OF THE VERB (THE VERBALS)The InfinitiveThe GerundThe Participle

THE MODAL WORDSTHE INTERJECTIONDefinitionClassification


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THE PREPOSITIONDefinitionClassification

THE CONJUNCTIONDefinitionClassification

THE PARTICLEDefinitionClassification

PART II: SYNTAX

THE SIMPLE SENTENCEDefinitionClassification

Parts of the Sentence

The Main Parts of the SentenceThe SubjectThe PredicateAgreement of the Predicate with the SubjectThe Secondary Parts of the SentenceThe ObjectThe AttributeThe Adverbial Modifier.Detached Parts of the SentenceThe independent Elements of the SentenceSentences with Homogeneous Parts

WORD ORDERGeneral remarksInverted order of wordsPosition of the objectPosition of the attributePosition of the adverbial modifiers

THE COMPOUND SENTENCE AND THE COMPLEX SENTENCEThe Compound SentenceGeneral NotionTypes of CoordinationThe Complex SentenceGeneral Notion.Types of clauses.

THE SEQUENCE OF TENSES

THE INDIRECT SPEECH

EXERCISES

MORPHOLOGYTHE NOUNTHE ARTICLETHE ADJECTIVE


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THE ADVERBTHE PRONOUNTHE NUMERALTHE WORDS OF THE CATEGORY OS STATETHE VERBTenses in the Active VoiceTenses in the Passive Voice

Modal VerbsMoodsTHE NON-FINITE FORMS OF THE VERB (THE VERBALS)THE MODAL WORDSTHE INTERJECTIONTHE PREPOSITIONTHE CONJUNCTIONTHE PARTICLE

SYNTAX

THE SIMPLE SENTENCEThe Main Parts of the SentenceThe SubjectThe PredicateAgreement of the Predicate with the SubjectThe Secondary Parts of the SentenceThe ObjectThe AttributeThe Adverbial Modifier.Detached Parts of the SentenceThe independent Elements of the Sentence

Sentences with Homogeneous Parts

WORD ORDER

THE COMPOUND SENTENCE AND THE COMPLEX SENTENCEThe Compound SentenceThe Complex Sentence

THE SEQUENCE OF TENSES

THE INDIRECT SPEECH


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GRAMMATICAL STRUCTURE OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE

1.

Give a short description of types of languages

2. Analytical forms are mostly proper to verbs. An analytical verb-form consists of one or more formwords, which have no lexical meaning and only express one or more of the grammatical categories of

person, number, tense, aspect, voice, mood, and one notional word, generally an infinitive or a participle: e.g.He has come, I am reading.

The analytical forms are: Examples1. Tense and Aspect verb-forms

the Continuous form: the Perfect form:

the Perfect Continuous form: the Future Indefinite: all the other forms of the Future; also the

interrogative and the negative forms of thePresent and Past Indefinite:

I am writingIhave written

Ihave been writingI shall writeDoes he sing?He doesnt sing

Flexional Languages

synthetic (inflections) analytical (words and word order)


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2. The Passive Voice: I was invited to the theatre.3. The analytical form of the Subjunctive Mood: I should go there if I had time.

3. However, the structure of a language is never purely synthetic or purely analytical. Accordingly in theEnglish language there are:

The synthetic forms in English are: Examples

1. Endings: -s in the third person singular in the Present Indefinite: -s in the plural of nouns: -s in the genitive case: -edin the Past Indefinite of regular verbs:

speakstablesmy brother's book

smoked

2. Inner flexions: man - men; speak-spoke3. The synthetic forms of the Subjunctive Mood: were, be, have, etc.

4. Owing to the scarcity of synthetic forms the order of words, which is fixed in English, acquires

extreme importance: The fisherman caught a fish.A deviation from the general principle of word order is possible only in special cases.

5. One of the marked features of the English language is the extensive use of substitutes. A wordsubstitute saves the repetition of a word in certain conditions. Here belong one, that, do.

One replaces class nouns in the singular and inthe plural:

Thanks for the compliment, if it is one.The hours he spent with Ruth were the only happy oneshe had, and they were not all happy.

That generally substitutes nouns, especially

abstract nouns and nouns of material followedby an attribute, mostly introduced by thepreposition of:

He (Martin) watched the easy walk of the other in frontof him, and for the first time realized that his walk was

different from thatof other men.Almost every day thereafter Mrs. Skelton would go fora ride in her own car or that of Castleman.

Do substitutes verbs: You know your law better than Ido.Forgive me for speaking with brutal frankness; I onlydo so because I care.

PART I: MORPHOLOGYGive a short definition of Morphology

GENERAL CLASSIFICATION OF THE PARTS OF SPEECHTHE PARTS OF SPEECH

Notional -perform certain functions in the sentence:the functions ofsubject, predicate, attribute, object,or adverbial modifier. The notional parts of speechare: the noun; the adjective; the pronoun; thenumeral; the verb; the adverb; the words of thecategory of state; the modal words; the interjection.

Structural - either express relations between wordsor sentences, or emphasize the meaning of words orsentences. They never perform any independentfunction in the sentence. Here belong: the

preposition; the conjunction; the particle; thearticle.

THE NOUN


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The noun is a word expressing substance.

Morphological composition of nouns

Types of nouns Characteristics Examples

Simple are nouns which have neither prefixes nor suffixes.They are indecomposable:

chair, table, room, map, fish,work.

Derivative are nouns which have derivative elements (prefixesor suffixes or both)

reader, blackness, childhood,misconduct, inexperience.

Compound are nouns builtfrom two or more stems.The main types of compound nouns are as follows:(a) noun-stem + noun-stem:

(b) adjective-stem + noun-stem:

(c) verb-stem + noun-stem:

the stem of a gerund or of a participle may be thefirst component of a compound noun:

snowball;

blackbird, bluebell;

pickpocket;

dining- room, reading-hall,dancing-girl.

Classification of nouns

morphological syntacticalcase

Numbernumbergender

subject

object

predicativeattribute

Predicativeadverb. modif.

Nouns

simple derivative compound


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Types of nouns Explanation Example

A) Proper They are individual names given toseparate persons or things. They are usedto designate:

personal names:

titles:

calendar items:

geographical names:

titles of books, newspapers,institutions:

names of nationalities andlanguages:

names of ships, hotels, clubs etc.

Deborah, Smith

Mr. Jackson, Lord Byron, Dr.Johnson

Sunday, January, Christmas

Britain, Europe, The PacificOcean, The Black Sea, theCaucasusGone with the Wind, TheGuardian, The United NationsOrganization

English, Greek, Spanish

Mayflower, the Regent Hotel

B) Common

class nouns

collective

nouns ofmaterial

abstract

concrete

countable uncountable

are names that can be applied to anyindividual of a class of persons or things.

denote persons or things belonging to aclass. They are countable and are

generally used with an article.

denote a number or collection of similarindividuals or things regarded as asingular unit. They denote:

nouns used only in the singular:

nouns that are singular in formthough plural in meaning:

nouns that may be both singularand plural:

denote material and are uncountable.

denote some quality, state, action or, idea:They are usually uncountable; thoughsome of them may be countable:

Existing in a form that can be touched,seen, etc.

nouns that can be countednouns denoting things that cannot becounted:

man, tree, curiosity

apart ofthe town

machinery, foliage

police, poultry, cattle, people

family, crowd, fleet

iron, gold, paper, tea, water

kindness, sadness, fight

idea, hour

girl, apple, pen

computer, tablefreedom, goodness


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THE CATEGORY OF NUMBER

Rules for forming the plural of English nouns: Examples1. By adding the ending -s (-es) to the singular; -s is

pronounced in different ways:[iz] after the sounds [s] ; [],[d ], [t ], [ ], [z]

[z] after vowels and the sounds [b], [d], [g], [l], [m], [n],[ ], [],[v]

[s] after the sounds: [k],[], [p], [t], []

noses, bushes; villages; benches;horses, bridgesbees, pubs, beds, mornings, cans doves,

caps, books, hats, cliffs, months

2. If the noun ends in-s, -ss, -x, -sh, -ch, or-tch, the plural isformed by adding -esto the singular:

bus- buses glass- glassesbox boxes brush - brushesbench benches match - matches

3. If the noun ends in -ypreceded by a consonant,yis changedinto ibeforees:

Note: If the final -yis preceded by a vowel, the plural isformed by simply adding -s to the singular:

fly flies army- armies

day days toy - toysmonkey - monkeys

4. If the noun ends in -o preceded by a consonant, the plural isgenerally formed by adding -es.

Only a few nouns ending inopreceded by a consonantform the plural in -s

All nouns ending in -opreceded by a vowel form the pluralin -sand not in -es.

There are some nouns ending ino that may have bothsandes for the plural:

hero heroes potato -potatoesecho echoes

piano pianos photo -photos

cuckoo cuckoosportfolio -portfolios

motto motos/-estobacco tobaccos/-es

5. a) Most nouns ending inforefgets in the plural:

b) There are a few nouns that changeforfe intoveswhen turned into the plural:

NB. There aresome nouns ending in -fwhich have twoforms in the plural:

belief beliefs cliffcliffsgrief griefs roof roofs

half halves knife knivesleaf leaves life livesloaf loaves shelf shelvesthief thieves wifewives

scarf-scarfs/ scarveswharf wharfs/ wharves

Number

singular plural


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6. Nouns ending inth gets in the plural. The endingth ispronounced: a) [] b) []a) Nouns ending in -th[]afterlong vowels change it into[] in pronunciation (which does not affect their spelling).

b) [ ] is always retained after consonants (including r) and

short vowels:

NB. There are some nouns whose plural formths may bepronounced either[] or[].

a) bath bathsb) death - deaths

bath [ba:]- baths [ba:z]path [pa:]-paths [pa:z]oath [ou]- oaths [ouz]

month - months [m n s]myth - myths [mi s]birth - births [b : s]health - healths [hel s]

cloths clothes truth - truthssheath sheaths wreath wreaths

7. The noun house has the plural houses [hauziz ]

8. There are certain irregular nouns, i.e. they do not needs at

the end to form the plural form:

child children man men

mouse - mice foot -feetwoman women tooth - teethgoose geese louse - liceox oxen

9. A number of nouns get zero plural i.e. have the same formin both singular and plural:

cod; sheep; deer; Chinese; Japanese

10.

In compound nouns the plural is formed in different ways:a) addings to one of the parts of speechb) or changing the root vowel

armchair-armchairsforget-me-not forget-me-nots

brother-in-law brothers-in-law

man - servant men-servants

11.

Some words borrowed from Latin or Greek keep their Latinor Greek plural forms:

Some of these nouns have acquired English plural forms:

phenomenon - phenomenadatum data crisis - crisesstimulus - stimuli formula - formulaeindex - indices terminus - termini

formulas, indexes, terminuses, etc.

12.

A few nouns are used only in the singular being calledSingularia Tantum nouns.

None of these nouns can be preceded by the indefinitearticle a/an and, as some of them have a collective meaning,when we want to refer to the singular, we must use thewords: piece, item, bar, bag, etc.:

advice, barley, bread, business, butter,cotton, furniture, income, information,knowledge, luggage, nylon, etc.

a {piece/slice} of bacon/cakea {piece/loaf} of breada {piece/word} of advicea {piece/item} of information/news

13.

A number of nouns (Pluralia Tantum) have only a pluralform:

shorts, trousers, measles, mumps,hysterics,glasses, scissors, billiards,cards, economics, informatics, politics,doings, funds (fonduri), remains(resturi), savings (economii), etc

THE CATEGORY OF CASE

- the grammatical category which shows the relations of the noun to the other words in the sentence.


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Case Explanations Examples

Nominative Answers the questions: who? and what? The teacherasks us a lot ofquestions.

A strong windis blowing.

Genitive It answers thequestions: whose? (al cui, a cui, ai cui, ale

cui?) which? what? (care ?)It is formed by adding , s, orof:

is used with plural forms ending insNB.1.Nouns forming their plural by changing the rootvowel take s in the plural:

s is usually used with: Proper names:

Names of persons:

When the possessor is represented by several words,the possessive ending is added after the last one only:

If each possessor is followed by s, this means thatthe possessed objects differ:

When we have groups of words and composed titles,the sign of the s is added to the last word.

Collective nouns:

Abstract nouns:

Names of countries, towns:

Names of celestial bodies:

Names of vessels, boats, ships:

Names of chronological divisions or nouns denotingmeasurements, distance, weight, etc.

With some of the indefinite pronouns: another,

ThegirlscoatsMens hats

Deborahs town

My friends bag

The boy and the girls toys. (theyhave the same toys)

The boys and the girls toys (theboy has some toys and the girlhas others)

My mother-in laws words,In Henry VIIIs reign

The governments decisions deciziile guvernului.

Libertys defense

Romanians towns, Londonsparks.

The suns rays

Ourships crew.

(today, week, month, etc. ):You must come to tomorrowsmeeting.anothers claim,

Case

Nominative Genitive


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either, neither, one, etc. and the composed forms of:some, any, no, every, etc.

With some expressions:

NB. 2.Nouns ending in -s form the genitive case in twoways: The pronunciation of the genitive case -ending

follows the same rules as the pronunciation of the pluralending.of is used:

when the possessor is a small animal, insect, etc.:

when the possessed object is preceded by ademonstrative adjective or by the indefinite article:

in some idiomatic expressions:

sometimes we avoidof

and form compound words:

with common nouns

somebodys advice, eithersoffer, anyones opinion

forGods sake

Dickens'novels, Dickens'snovels. [dikinsiz]

The wings of the fly.

Those toys ofthe childrenTom is a cousin ofmy friend.

Of a size, in order of, in sight of

A writer of prose a prose-

writer= un scriitor de prozaThe cover of the book the bookcover = coperta cartii

The leg of the table

THE CATEGORY OF GENDER

It is doubtful whether the grammatical category of gender exists in Modern English for it is hardly everexpressed by means of grammatical forms. There is practically only one gender-forming suffix in ModernEnglish, the suffix -ess, expressing gender. It is not widely used.heir - heir-ess poet -poet-ess

Feminine gender

a) adding suffixes tothe masculine form

actor actress; waiter waitress; master mistress;author authoress; duke duchess; hero heroine;

fianc - fiance; widow-widower; bride-bridegroomcomedian-comedienne; director-directrix (directress);

b) using differentwords

boy girl; father mother; sister- brother; husband - wife;uncle aunt; nephew niece; wizard - witch;

Gender

masculine feminine neuter

adding suffixes using different words using a word that indicates sex

common


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bachelor - maid/spinster; drake duck; gander-goose

c) using a word thatindicates the sex.

a) nouns denoting personsboy fried-girlfriend male patient -female patientbrother-in-law -sister-in-law man friend woman friend

b) nouns denoting animalshe-bird she-bird male camel female camelmale/tom cat female/tabby cat cock-pheasant hen-pheasanthe/billy-goat she /nanny- goat buck-rabbit doe-rabbit

The use of compoundsin which the secondelement specifiesgender:

grandfather - grandmother landlord - landladychairman chairwoman halfbrother halfsister

The nouns thatindicate nationality or

origin. (man - themasculine gender;woman the feminine).

All the other nouns thatindicate a personsnationality or originhave one form for the

both genders:

Sometimes for claritythe word woman orgirlis used:

an Englishman an Englishwoman a Dutchman a Dutchwoman

a Frenchman a Frenchwoman a Scotsman a Scotswoman

British American Chinese GermanGreek Italian etc.

a Romanian woman (girl) a Japanese womana Spanish woman etc.

Common gender

denotes either sex andthe same word maybeused both of male andfemale:

adult animal cook doctorneighbour professor relative servant etc.

Neuter gender

denotes things, ideas orbeings whose sex arenot interested in:

book house thought, etc.

Tasks:A. Knowledge1. Give the definition of noun.2. Give the definition of proper and common nouns.B. Application1. Give examples of proper, common, abstract, concrete, countable, and uncountable nouns.

C. Integration1. Compare the category of gender in English and Romanian.


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THE ARTICLE

USE OF ARTICLES WITH COMMON NOUNS

I. The use ofthe definite article with common nouns.

1. When the noun has already been mentioned or it iswell known.

2. When the speaker uses an attribute pointing out aparticular object.

The English use the definite article much oftener thanthe demonstrative pronouns this orthat.

3. Before a noun followed by a prepositional phrase.

4. Before nouns which are considered unique: theearth, the Bible, the sky, the sun.

NB. The indefinite article can be used when we mean acertain aspect in which the sun, moon andsky appear tous, a certain state of the sun, the moon, the sky. In thiscase an attribute is used.

5. Before a singular noun used as a representative of aclass:

NB.a) With the noun man no article is used.

b)The noun woman is used with the definite article oroccasionally without an article.

6. Before superlatives and ordinal numbers:

7. With nouns in word groups the first component ofwhich is: some, many, none, mostand the second a

noun wit the preposition of:

8. With nouns modified by the pronoun same and theadjectives wrong, right,very.

How did you like the play?

This is the house that Jack built.The wedding looked dismal. The bride wastoo old andthe bridegroom was too young.

Let me have the book.

The capital of France.The house with large windows.

The sun was getting warmer.

A pearl-white moon smiles through thegreen trees.

The elephant is a big animal.But: Elephants are big animals.

Silas felt that his trust in man had beencruelly destroyed.

He had always been interested in thatmysterious being the woman.Woman is man's helpmate.the best, the second etc.

Most ofthe gentlemen looked both angryand uncomfortable.

To all invitations he replied with the samecourteous and positive refusal.

I do wish we had not openedthe door of

Article

definite: the indefinite: a, an


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9. With substantivized adjectives and participles.10. With the names of materials when they are narrowed

in their meaning.NB. With nouns of material used in a general sense,

when a certain material as such is meant, no article isused.11. With abstract nouns that are modified by a

particularizing attribute or the situation makes theidea definite.

12. Before a common noun followed by a proper nounwhich identifies it:

But nouns expressing professions usually follow theproper names and are preceded by the:NB. If a noun is modified by a proper noun in thegenitive case no article is used.

13. Before names of musical instruments:

14. With the words: the police, the fire-brigade, thearmy, the bank, the post office.

15. Also with the words: the doctor, the dentist:

16. We say the cinema/ the theatre:NB: when we say the cinema/ the theatre we do notnecessarily mean one particular cinema or theatre. We usually say the radio;

But we usually say television (without the).

17. In a number of phrases:

the wrong room.

Only the simple andthe humble were there.

But suddenly he heard steps on the snow.

Honey is wholesome.

He was the courage of his father, thespiritof his brothers, the hope of his children.

The novelist Hemingway.

Brown, the lawyer Brown, avocatul

I met Roberts father.

To play the piano/violin

I must go to the bank to change somemoney and then I am going to the post.

John isnt very well. He has gone to thedoctor. (his doctor)

We went to the cinema last night.

We often listened to the radio.

We often watch television.

But: Can you turn offthe television,please?

By the way, on the one hand, in thecountry, atthe seaside, in the evening, etc.

II. The use ofthe indefinite article with common nouns.

1. When the speaker presents the object expressed bythe noun as belonging to a certain class.

2. With a predicative noun.NB. After the conjunction as a predicative noun is oftenused without an article.3. When the noun is used in a general sense. The

article has the meaning ofevery.4. There are cases when the indefinite article preserves

its old original meaning of 'one'.

5. Abstract nouns can be used with the indefinitearticle. In this case the abstract noun denotes acertain kind of a quality, feeling, state, etc.

6. With the nounsperiod,population,distance, height,

Close beside them grew a rose-bushcovered with scarlet hips.

Miss Sharp's father was an artist.She was engaged as governess.

A drowning man catches atastraw.

A stitch in time saves nine.

In her eyes there was an eagerness, whichcould hardly be seen without delight.

Simpson was out of the city fora period of


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salary etc. followed by of+ numeral + noun.7. When we want to classify people in terms of their

occupation:NB.1 If the noun denotes a title or office that can only

be held by one person at a time the indefinite article isno longer used:

NB.2 The indefinite article is not used after the verb toturn when it means to become.

8. In expression of measurements, when we refer to

one unit of measurement in terms of another.

9. In exclamatory sentences beginning with what,suchorso.

NB. The indefinite article precedes the adjective whenused withsuch and it follows the adjective when usedwithso:

NB. If the noun following whatorsuch is uncountable,the indefinite article is not used:However, it is corrected to say whata pity, although

pity is an uncountable noun.

10. In a number of phrases:

ten days.

I am a doctor. Eu sunt doctor.

Jack was elected captain of the team. afost ales capitan.

She used to be a dancer, but then sheturned singer.

90p a kilo/ 80 km an hour/ twice a week.

Whata day!

He was such (att) agood worker!He was so (aa) gooda worker.

What weather we are having at themoment.

as a rule = de regul; as a reward = carasplat; at a distance = la distant, etc.


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USE OF ARTICLES WITH PROPER NOUNS

I. Names of persons

1. Names of persons are used without articles.

2. In most cases no article is used with names of personsmodified by the adjectives old, young, poor, dear, little,honest, lazy.

NB. When modified by other adjectives and participles, the

definite article is used.

3. Nouns denoting military ranks and titles such asacademician, professor, doctor (both a profession and atitle), count, lord, etc. followed by names of persons donot take the article.

4. Nouns indicating relationship, such as farther, mother,sister, brother, aunt, master, etc. are used by themembers of the family or by intimate friends, are usedwithout an article.

Or when a proper name is added to the nouns aunt, sister,cousn, etc.5. The indefinite article is used when names of persons:a) are used to denote a representative of a family:b)are modified by the adjective certain:

6. The definite article is used:a) When these names denote the whole family.

b) When names of persons are modified by aparticularizingattribute.

7. when we want to classify people in terms of:a) their origin:b) their religion:c) their politics:

He looked at Lanny and Ann.

She is the widow of poor GiovanniBolla.

The astonished Tom could not say a

word.

Painter Gainsborough left many finepictures.

Mother trimmed the hats.

Uncle Benjamin lived in a very nicetown.

Florence will never, never, never be adumber.

I heard it from a certain Mr. Brown.

The Dashwoods were now settled atBerton.

You're notthe Andrew Manson Imarried.

He is a Mexican. El este Mexican.Shes a Catholic. - Ea este catolic.

Tom is a Republican.

II. Geographical names

No article is used with:

1. Continents:2. Countries and States:But we say thea) with names which include words like republic, union,

kingdom, states:

b) with plural names:

3. Cities/ towns/ villages:Exception:The Hague (in the Netherlands)

4. Individual islands :NB. Island groups usually have plural names with the:

5. Lakes:

6. We dont normally use the with names ofstreets/ roads/squares etc.

NB. The Mail, the High Street, the Strand.

We use the with:

Africa, Asia, EuropeFrance, Japan, Texas

The U.S.A, the U.K., the Republic ofIreland

The Netherlands

New York, Madrid

Bermuda, Easter Island

TheBritish IslesLake Superior

Regent Street, Red Square


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SPECIAL DIFFICULTIES IN THE USE OF ARTICLES

I. The use of articles with the nouns morning, day, night, evening, afternoon, midnight

1. Nouns denoting the parts of the day; morning, day,evening, afternoon, midnight are used with the definite

article when a particular morning, evening etc. is meant.

2. The nouns day, night etc. have no article when they areused in a more general abstract sense:

a) when the nouns day, morning, night etc. arepredicatives, sometimes - objects:

b) in one member sentence:

c) in phrasiological combinations of these nouns with theprepositions:

NB. Sometimes the article is also absent with otherprepositions. But in these cases both absence of the articleand the definite article may be found depending on themeaning implied.d) after such constructions:

e) When day or morning means light and evening or nightmeans darkness.

The night was fine but very dark.

It was midnight. - Era miezul noptii.

Morning, cold and gray.

It is easier to work by day than at night.by day; at night, at noon, etc.

We reached home towards evening.(time) Am ajuns acas spre sear.(Towardsthe evening the evening ofthat particular day.)

Morning after morning.

I rose as soon as day dawned. - Eu m-am trezit numai cum s-a luminat de zi.

II. The use of articles with names of seasons.

1. Names of seasons are used without articles:a) if they show a certain time of the year.

b) when they are modified by the adjectives early orlate.2. The definite article is used when these nouns aremodified by a particularizing attribute or the situationmakes them definite.3. The indefinite article is used when these nounsare modified by a descriptive attribute.

It was spring.It was early spring.

It happened in the spring of 1930.

It was a cold spring.

III. The use of articles with the nouns school, college, bed, prison, jail.

1. These nouns are used without an article whenthey loose their concrete meaning and express the

purpose for which the objects denoted by thesenouns serve.

2. When these nouns denote concrete objects thearticles are used according to the general

principle.

Mary goes to school. (She is a pupil)

Mother went to the school yesterday to attenda parents meeting.She worked ata school in Siberia.

IV. The use of articles with the names of meals.

1. Names of meals are used without articles.

2. The definite article is used when these nouns aremodified by a particularizing attribute or thesituation makes them definite.

When did you have dinner?

The dinner we had today was very substantial.


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3. The indefinite article is used when these nounsare modified by a descriptive attribute.

Aftera hearty breakfast the four gentlemen left.

V. The use of articles with the names of languages.

1. These names are used without articles when theyare not followed by the noun language.

2. When the noun language is mentioned thedefinite article is used.

She knows English.

TheEnglish language.

VI. The use of articles with the word space.

We sayspace (not the space) when we mean spacein the universe.

There are millions of stars in space. ( not in thespace)But: He tried to park his car butthespacewasnt big enough.

ABSENCE OF ARTICLES

1. Before abstract nouns used in a general sense:But, if the reference is made to certain abstractnouns, they are preceded by the.

2. Before names of materials used in a generalsense: milk, bread, snow.

3. Before plural nouns used in a general sense.

4. Before names of meals used in a general sense.

5. Before such nouns cook, nurse, teacher,gardener, milkman: when they have the meaningour cook/ teacher/ etc.

6. Before names ofdays, months, seasons,holidays.

7. Before names of subjects, sciences.

8. Before names of illnesses.

Life, death, freedom, liberty, love

The life of this child.

NB.The coffee is very expensive.

Books are silent friends.

But:the books you lent me are very

interesting.We have breakfast at 7 oclock every morning.

Teacher is going to give us a test today.

Monday is the first day of the week in ourcountry.

Phisics, Chemistry

measles

Tasks:A. Knowledge1. What kinds of articles are there in English?

B. Application1. Give examples of proper nouns used with definite articles.

C. Integration1. What does the article used before a noun depend on?


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THE ADJECTIVE

The adjective is a word expressing a quality of a substance.

Meaning Examples

One object has more of the quality named by the adjectivethan some other.Than is often used after a comparative degree.Much can come before the comparative to give emphasis.

She is tallerthan her sister.This task is more difficult than that one.

Is Tokyo much more modern than London?

The greatest degree of the quality among the things beingcompared.

This is the highestbuilding I have ever seen.It is the most wonderfulparty.

The objects are equal in the quality named by the adjective. Peter is as tall as Nick.

One object has less of the quality named by the adjectivethan the other does.

Peter is not as tall as Nick.Jane is less beautifulthan Kate.

The least degree of the quality named by the adjective. This is the least interestingfilm Ive seen

lately.Something is acquiring or losing a quality. Your English is gettingbetter and better.I am less andless satisfiedwith my job.

Comparative denotes ahigher degree of a quality

Superlativedenotes thehighest degree of a

quality

Short adjectives cheapsmall

cheapersmaller

(the) cheapest(the) smallest

Adjectives of twosyllables which end in

y, -ow, -er, -le.

happynarrowcleversimple

happiernarrowercleverer

simpler

(the) happiest(the) narrowest(the) cleverest(the) simplest

Adjectives with two careful more careful (the) mostcareful

Adjective

Morphological characteristics Syntactical characteristics

attribute predicativedegrees of comparison

comparative

superlative


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syllables or more interesting more interesting (the) mostinteresting

Irregular adjectives goodbadmany, muchlittlefar

old

betterworsemoreless

farther/ further

older/ elder

(the) best(the) worst(the) most(the) least(the) farthest/ furthest

(the) oldest/ eldest

Spelling rules

1. Short adjectives with one vowel + oneconsonantdouble the consonant.

hotfat

hotterfatter

hottestfattest

2. If the adjective ends in y preceded by aconsonant, y is changed into ibefore er,-est.

busyearly

busierearlier

busiestearliest

3. If the adjective ends in e the e is droppedbeforeerand -est.

finenice

finernicer

finestnicest

Morphological composition of the adjective

simple They have neither prefixes nor suffixes. They areindecomposable:

good, red, black.

derivative They have derivative elements, suffixes or prefixes, orboth:

beautiful, foolish, unkind,etc.

compound They are built from two or more stems:a) noun-stem + adjective stem:

b) noun-stem + participle stem:

c) adjective-stem + adjective stem:d) adjective stem + noun-stem + suffix- ed:e) noun-stem + noun-stem + suffix - ed:f) numeral-stem + noun-stem + suffix

ed:g) adverb-stem + noun-stem + suffix

ed:

snow whitelife giving, smoke dried

deaf mutecold hearted

lynx eyedfour wheeled

over - peopled

Classification of adjectives

Adjectives

simple derivative compound


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Qualitativeadjectives

They denote qualities of a substance directly, notthrough its relation to another substance, as size,shape, colour, physical and mental qualities, qualitiesof general estimation:Grammatical characteristics: most of them have degrees of comparison: some of them have no degrees of comparison: they have certain typical suffixes, such as -ful,

-less, -ous, -ent, -able, -y, -ish: from most of them adverbs can be formed by the

suffixly:

Little, large, high, soft, hard,warm, white, blue, pink, strong,bold, beautiful, important,necessary, etc.

big / bigger/ the biggestgreenish, unsuitablecareful, careless, dangerous,convenient, etc.

graceful gracefully.

Relativeadjectives

They denote qualities of a substance through theirrelations to:

materials place time some action

Grammatical characteristics: they have no degrees of comparison: they have certain typical suffixes, such as

en, -an, -ist, -ic, -ical, : they do not form adverbs with the suffixly:

silken, woolen, woodenItalian, Asianmonthly, weekly

preparatory

wooden, Italian, synthetic, etc.

Tasks:A. Knowledge1. Give the definition of adjective.

B. Application1. Give examples of qualitative and relative adjectives.

C. Integration1. Compare the degrees of comparison of the adjective in English and your mother tongue.

THE ADVERBThe adverb is a part of speech which expresses some circumstances that attend an action or state, or points

out some characteristic features of an action or quality.The function in the sentence: adverbial modifier.

Adjectives

qualitative relative


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Types of adverbs Examples

simple long, enough, then, etc.

derivative (suffix or prefix + word) slowly, likewise, forward, etc.

compound anyhow, sometimes, nowhere, etc.

composite at once, at last, etc.

time today, tomorrow, soon, etc.

frequency often, seldom, never, sometimes, etc.

place and direction inside, outside, here, there, upstairs, etc.

cause and consequence therefore, consequently, accordingly, etc.

manner kindly, quickly, hard, etc.

degree, measure, quantity very, enough, half, too, nearly, almost, much, little, quite, etc.

Degrees of comparison

comparative superlative

An adverb of onesyllable

fasthard

fasterharder

fastesthardest

Adverbs ending in -ly wisely more wisely most wisely

Adverbs

According to the structure According to the meaning

simple

derivative

compound

composite

time

frequency

place and directionCompound

degree, measure, and quantitycause and consequence

Composite

manner

degree, measure, quantity


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beautifully more beautifully most beautifullyIrregular forms ofcomparison

wellbadlymuchlittle

betterworsemoreless

bestworstmostleast

Tasks:A. Knowledge1. Give the definition of adverb.2. According to the structure adverbs are 3. According to the meaning adverbs are

B. Application1. Give examples of time, frequency,place, cause and consequence, and manner adverbs.

C. Integration

1. Compare the degrees of comparison of the adverb in English and your mother tongue.

THE PRONOUN

Types of pronouns Examples

1. Personalpronouns

Subject: I, he, she, it, we, you, they

Object: me, him, her, It, us, you, them

2. Possessivepronouns

mine; his; hers; ours; yours; theirs

3. Reflexivepronouns

myself; himself; herself; itself; ourselves; yourselves; themselves

4. Reciprocalpronouns

each other; one another

5. Demonstrativepronouns

this these; that those; the former; the latter; the first; the last; the same;such; such- and-such; suchlike; one ones.

6. Indefinitepronouns

all; both; much; many; more; most; little, few; a little; a few; another; theother; others; the others; either; neither; each; everybody; everything;everyone; some; any; no one/ none; somebody; something; someone; anybody;anything; anyone; nobody; nothing; enough; several; one

7. Interrogativepronouns

who; whom; whose; what; which

8. Relative pronouns who; whom; whose; whoever; which; whichever; that; what


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Types ofpronouns

Explanations Examples

PersonalPronouns

Grammatical categories: ofperson, numberand (inthe third person singular)gender.

two cases:a) the nominative case:

b) the objective case:NB. If the pronoun is used as part of the subject, usea subject pronoun:If it is part of the object, use an object pronoun:

two numbers:a) singularb) pluralNB.you is both singular and plural He, she, itdistinguish gender

a) Male beings (man, uncle, boy, etc.) are referred toas he:b) Female beings (woman, aunt, girl, etc.) arereferred to as she:c) Inanimate things (house, tree, cap, etc.) arereferred to as it:Functions: ofsubject, object, predicative.

I, you, he, she, it, we, they

me, you, him, her, it, us, themEric andIare good friends.

Ann met Eric andme at the museum.

I, he, she, it,we, they

Herhusbandasked only a fewquestions.He was a silent man.He turned and saw thegirl.She was apale, ethereal creatureWheres yourcar? -Itis in the

garage.

Possessiveprono

uns

Grammatical categories: ofperson, numberand (inthe third person singular)gender.

mine; his; her; ours; yours; theirs

A possessive pronoun is used alone,without a noun following it.

A possessive adjective is used onlywith a noun following it.

NB. The form its, although it may occurin some constructions, is no longer usedtoday being considered obsolete.

Possessive pronounsI have mine.You haveyours.She has hers.

He has his.We have ours.You haveyours.They have theirs.

Possessive adjectivesI have mypen.You haveyourpen.She has herpen.

He has his pen.We have ourpens.You haveyourpens.They have theirpens.

I have a book. Its cover isblack.


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Reflexivepronouns

Grammatical categories: ofperson,numberand (in the third personsingular)gender.

End in self/ -selves. They are usedwhen the subject (e.g., I) and theobject (e.g., myself) are the same

person. The action of the verb is

pointed back to the subject of thesentence.Incorrect:I saw me in the mirror.

By + a reflexive pronoun = alone.

Enjoy and a few other verbs andphrases are commonly followed by areflexive pronoun.

Functions: ofprepositional object,predicative.Those verbs which describe actionsthat people do to themselves ( toshave; to dress; to wash, etc.) do notusually take reflexive pronouns:

With these verbs, reflexive pronounsare only used for emphasis:

I saw myselfin the mirror.You saw (one person)yourselfin the mirror.She saw herselfin the mirror.

He saw himselfin the mirror.It saw itself.We saw ourselves.You (plural) sawyourselves.

They saw themselves.

Greg lives by himself. (i.e. alone without family orroommates.)

Believe in, blame, cut, enjoy, feel sorry for, help,hurt, give, introduce, kill, pinch, be proud of, takecare of, talk to, teach, tell, work for.

Jimmy usuallyshaves before breakfast.

I prefershavingmyselfto going to the barbers

Reciprocalpronouns

The reciprocal pronouns each other and one anotherindicate that two people do the same thing, feel thesame way, or have the same relationship, that is thefeeling or action is mutual.

Each other generally implies only two people:

One another generally implies more than twopeople:

There are some verbs in English that describeprocesses which involve two people or two groups ofpeople doing the same thing to each other, having,thus, a reciprocal meaning:

If, however, we want to emphasize that bothparticipants are equally involved in the action, we useeach other orone another after the verb:

He had never heard his father or hismother speak in an angry voice toeach other.

Seated in a row close to one anotherwere three ladies Aunt Ann, Hester,and Julie.

to argue, to hug, to compete, to kiss,to consult, to marry, to embrace, tomatch, to engage, to meet, to fight, totouch.

We kissed.

We kissedone another.


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Demonstra-tivepronouns

This is used to point at what is nearer in time orspace:That is used to point at what is farther in time orspace:This these; that those may be applied to both

persons and things.

The former the latter: these pronouns have themeaning of the firstand, respectively, the secondoftwo. They have the same form for singular and

plural:The same is used as a:

demonstrative adjective demonstrative pronoun

The same may also replace a whole sentence:

Such can be both a demonstrative adjective:a demonstrative pronoun:

Suchlike:

This is an interesting book.Thatwas a serious problem.This is a French girl.

Ann and Janet are cousins: theformer is a student, the latter is a

pupil.Ann si Janet sunt verioare: prima estudent, a doua e elev.

George learns in the same school ashis friend.

I thinkthe same about this.

I drank a glass of milk and my sister

didthe same.Have you ever readsuch stories?Such is the present situation.

We have never listened to suchlikesongs. (adjective)I dont like books about love, romanceandsuchlike. (pronoun)

IndefinitePronouns

All is a generalizing pronoun; it takes a group ofthings or people as a whole. It may be used as

subject, predicative, object, and attribute.

Both points out two persons, things or notionsmentioned before. It may be used as subject, object,

prepositional indirect object, and attribute.

Each and every refer to all the members of the groupof persons, things, or notions mentioned before andtaken one by one. They require a verb in the singular.Each may be used assubject, object, and attribute.

Every is used only as an attribute.

Everybody, everyone refer to all the members of thegroup of persons mentioned before or taken one byone. They have two cases:

a) the common

b) the genitive

Functions of:subject, object, and attribute.

Everything may be applied to things, animals, and

abstract notions. It is used as subject, predicative, andobject.

Either has two meanings: a) each of the two, b) oneor the other. It is usually used as attribute or part of

And Martin forgotallabout it.

Both seemed to implore something toshelter them from reality.

They began to deal swiftly with thecocoa tins, slipping a stick ofdynamite in each.(prepositionalindirect object)This is something more than genius. Itis true, every line of it.

You walked into the waiting-room,into a great buzz of conversation, andthere was everybody; you knew almosteverybody.

He almost forgot the discomfort ofbeing set up as a target for everybodysgaze.

No one will see us. Pull down that veilandeverythingwill be all right.

Which book do you prefer?


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the subject.

Other others have two cases:

a) the common (other others)

b) the genitive(others others)

The other means the the last one in a specificgroup, the only one that remains from a givennumber of similar items. It can be pronoun andadjective. It used assubject, object, and attribute.

Other(s) (without the) means several more out of agroup of similar items, several in addition to the one(s) I have already talked about.

The adjective other (without an s) can be used witha plural noun or with the word ones.

Others (with ans) is a plural pronoun; it is not usedwith a noun.

The other(s) means the last ones in a specificgroup, the remains from a given number of similaritems.

The other (without an s) can be used as anadjective in front of a plural noun or the word ones.

The others (with an s) is a plural pronoun; it is notused with a noun.

Another means one more out of a group of similaritems, one in addition to the one(s) I have alreadytalked about.

It may be used assubject, object, and attribute.

Another can be used as an adjective in front of a

noun or in front of the word one.Another can also be used alone as a pronoun.

Somebody, anybody, someone, anyone, one havetwo cases:

a) the common

b) the genitive

Some is chiefly used in affirmative sentences.

Any is used in negative and interrogative sentencesand in conditional clauses.

Either.

There are two apples on the table.Paul is going to eat one of them. Sarais going to eatthe other.(pronoun)Sara is going to eat the other apple.(adjective)

There are many apples in Paulskitchen Paul is holding one apple.There are other apples (ones) in abowl. (adjective)

There are others on a chair.(pronoun)

There are four apples on the table.Paul is going to take one of them.Sara is going to take the otherapples.(ones) (adjective)

She is going to take the others.(pronoun)

Theres a large bowl of apples on thetable. Paul is going to eat one apple.

If he is still hungry after that, he caneatanother( apple). There are manyapples to choose from.There were two apples on the table.

Paul ate one apple. Then he ate

anotherone. (adjective)Paul ate one apple. Then he ateanother. (pronoun)

Some, any, somebody, anybody,someone, anyone, something,anything, one.

Im sure some will agree.

Cats? I dont have any.Do you see any?If you have any, show them to meplease.


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Some, not any, is used in special and generalquestions expressing some request or proposal.

Any may be used in affirmative sentences with themeaning of every.

Somebody, someone, something are chiefly used in

affirmative sentences.

Anybody, anyone, anything are used in negativeand interrogative sentences and in conditionalclauses.

Somebody, someone, something are used in specialand general questions if they express some request or

proposal.

Anybody, anyone, anything may be used inaffirmative sentences. Anybody, anyone are usedwith the meaning of everyone; anything is usedwith the meaning of everything.

Some, any, somebody, anybody, someone, anyone,something, anything may be used as: subject,object, attribute, predicative.

One is used to avoid the repetition ofa/ an + noun.

None may be applied both to human beings andthings. It can be used as subject or object. It isopposite to the pronouns some, something, someone,all, everybody, every, each.

Nobody, no one refer to human beings. They areopposite to the pronouns somebody, someone, all,everybody, every, and each.

They are mostly used assubjects and objects.

Nothing refers to things. It is oppositeto the

pronounssomethingand everything. It may be usedassubject, predicative or object.

Neither is opposite to the defining pronouns either,both. It may be used assubject, object, and attribute.

Do you wantsome?

Any are allowed to do it..

Theres someone in front of ourhouse.

I would like to say something.I dont wantanything.Is there anything you would like totell me?

Ifanybody comes, tell me please.

Willsomeone help me?

Youve no business to say such a

thing! she exclaimed. : Why not?Anybody can see it....she sank in spirit inwardly as shethought of asking for something to do

something that she could do anything.

I forgot to bring a pen. Can you lendme one?

None of us can hold on forever!

Nobody seemed to know him well.We have no one to help us.

Nothingcan satisfy me more.

Do you like any of these two cars? Ilike neither.


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Interro-

gativepronouns

Are used to form special questions:

Who has the category of case:

a) the nominative: who

b) the objective: whom

NB. Theres a tendency in Modern English to usewho, instead ofwhom, as an object.

Who refers to human beings:

What usually refers to things but it may be applied topersons when one inquires about their occupation:

Which has as elective meaning; it refers to anindividual of the group. It may refer to persons orthings.

Functions:subject, predicative, object, and attribute.

who; whom; whose; what; which

Who has watered the flowers?

What are you looking for, Tess?Hairpins, she replied.Whatwas he? A painter.

Which of us does he mean? askedthe boy.Which side of the bed do you like,

Mum?

Relativepronouns

Refer to somebody or something that has alreadybeen mentioned and, at the same time, join clausestogether.

Who refers to persons. It is the subjectof a relativeclause:

Whom is the object of a relative clause, although,nowadays, the form who is also accepted:

Whose refers to persons, animals, and things. Itshows who or what something belongs to or is

connected with. It must always come in front of anoun.

Which always refers to things or animals and can bethe subject or the objectof a relative clause:

That may refer to either people or things and has thesame form as the subjector the object of a relativeclause, or of a preposition:

who; whom; whose; whoever; which;whichever; that; what

The boy who is answering theteachers question is my friend.

This is the girlwho(m) we metyesterday.

The woman whose hat is red is ourneighbour.

Here was her own style- a bedwhichdid not look like others.

The girlthatyou see is my sister.

On one side was a low wall thatseparated it from the street.

Tasks:A. Knowledge1. Give the definition of pronoun.2. Name the types of pronouns.B. Application1. Give examples of personal, possessive, reflexive, reciprocal, relative, interrogative, indefinite,demonstrative pronouns.

C. Integration1. Compare the types of pronouns in English and your mother tongue.

THE NUMERAL


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Types ofnumeral

Examples

Cardinal Are used to refer to an exact number of things,etc.Notes: The figure 0 can be written andpronounced in the following ways:

Zero usually used in American English, inmathematics, for temperature;Nought used in British English, inmathematics;Oh used when reading out long numbers,one figure at a time (e. g. telephone numbers,account numbers, etc);Nil used to express scores in team games;Love used to express scores in tennis.

Unlike most other languages, in English

the numbers over 999 that are written infigures get a comma or a blanc dividing thefigures into groups of three: When the cardinal number contains a fullstop, the number or numbers that occur after

0 - zero; 1 one; 2 two; 3 three; 4 four, 5 five; 6 six; 7 seven; 8 eight; 9nine; 10 ten; 11 eleven, 12 twelve;13 thirteen; 14 fourteen; 15 fifteen; 16

sixteen; 17 seventeen; 18 eighteen; 19

nineteen; 20 twenty; 21 twenty-one;22 twenty-two, etc.; 30 thirty; 40 forty;50 fifty; 60 sixty; 70 seventy; 80 eighty; 90 ninety; 100 one hundred; 205 two hundred and five; 1,000 onethousand; 1,325 - one thousand, threehundred and twenty-five; 1,000,000 onemillion; 5,000,000 five million;1,000,000,000 - one billion.

1,987 1 9872,513,608 2 513 608

7.25 (seven point twenty-five)

adverbial

distribu-tive

adverbial

multipli-cativeadver-

bial

ordinal

cardinal

numeral


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the full stop indicate a fraction:

When we write in words or say a numberover 100, we must put andbefore the numberexpressed by the last two figures:

Butandis often omitted in American English:

A is usually used before hundred,thousand, million when they stand alone or ininformal English:

and one in formal English or when thesewords are followed by other numbers:

The words hundred, thousand, million,dozen (= 12), score (=20) and gross (= 144)are never used in the plural when preceded bya definite number or by several, a few or acouple of:

But the words hundred, thousand, million,billion, dozen, score and gross are used in the

plural when they express an indefinite numberor are preceded by many:

Expressing AgeWe can express a persons age in thefollowing ways: with the help of the verb to be followed

by a number:

with the preposition of after a noun,followed by a number: with the word aged after the noun,

followed by a number: with the help of a compound adjective,

made up of a number followed by asingular noun referring to a period oftime, followed by the word old. Thesewords are hyphened:

with the help of a compound nounconsisting of a number followed by yearold:

If we want to refer to somebodys age in anapproximate way, we can do it in thefollowing ways:

Telephone Numbers

102= one hundred and two1120 = one thousand, one hundred andtwenty129 = one hundred twenty-nine.

This watch costs a hundred dollars.There were not more than a thousandpeopleon the beach.One hundred and twenty-four.One thousand and five.

Two hundredyears,five thousandbooks,ten million people, three dozen books,ten score.

Hundreds of girls, thousands of flowers,millions of people, scores of lettersThey sell in dozens and ingrosses.

Many hundreds/ thousands/ etc.

Tom isfifteen (years old).

She was a girlof twelve.

He had a daughteraged fifteen.

A fifteen year-oldboyA two-month-oldbaby

We were met by Kerry, a pretty twenty-year-old.

Allthe seven-year-olds will go to school inSeptember.When Rosemary was in herteens, ...The two men were both in theirmid-fifties.

I think she is overfifty.All those present were under twenty.

She is below the age of thirty.Im sure he sisters are above the age oftwenty.The over-eighteens will be allowed to see

this film.The under-fourteens will not be givenidentity cards.


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Each digit of a telephone number is usuallyspoken separately except in the case of twoidentical digits occurring together, which aresaid as double three, double seven, etc.The digits are spoken in groups of two orthree, with slight pauses between the groups.

142093 (one-four-two-oh-nine-three)

43338 (four-double three-three-eight)/(four-three-double three-eight)

NB.In American English, zero ornoughtisusually used instead ofoh

Ordinal They are used to identify something byindicating where it comes in a series ofsequence. They are formed with the help ofthe suffixth added to the cardinal numbers ortheir equivalents, except the first threenumbers which have irregular forms, and thecompound numbers with which only the lastfigure gets its ordinal form.They can also be written in abbreviated form:

dates may be written in the followingways:

But, when reading or speaking, the ordinalnumbers must be used in all these cases.

years:

titles of kings must be written in Romannumbers, but they are read using ordinal

numbers:

The first; the second; the third; the fourth;the fifth; the tenth; the eleventh; the twelfth;the thirteenth; the twenty-first; the twenty-

fourth; the thirtieth; the one hundredth; theten thousandth; the one millionth; the thirty-

somethingth; etc.

The 1st; the 2nd; the 3rd; the 4th; the 10th; the21st; the 52nd; the 76th;

April 1, 1946 1 April 1946

April 1st

, 1946 1st

April 19461stof April 1946

1969 - nineteen hundred and sixty-nine,ornineteen sixty-nine.2006 two thousand and six

Charles I, Richard II, Henry VIIICharles the First, Richard the Second, Henrythe Eighth.

Multipli-cativeadver-bial

This numeral shows the proportion inwhich a quantity is increased:

Double/ twofold; threefold; fourfold; tenfold;hundredfold; etc.

Distributi-veadverbial

It shows the distribution or grouping ofobjects:

One by one; two by two/ by twos/ in twos;ten by ten/ by tens/ in tens; etc.

Adverbial It shows how many times an action isperformed.

Once; twice; three times; ten times; etc.We sang that song twice.

Tasks:A. Knowledge1. Give the definition of numeral.2. Name the types of numeral.3. Which type of numeral is used to write dates years, telephone numbers, and age.B. Application1. Give examples of cardinal, ordinal, multiplicative adverbial, distributive adverbial, and adverbialnumerals.

C. Integration

1. Compare the use of cardinal and ordinal numerals in English and Romanian.

THE WORDS OF THE CATEGORY OF STATE


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Characteristics Examples denote the temporary state or condition of

persons or things.But Johnny and Paddy were as1eep, the rose-redglow had paled, bats were flying, and still thebathers had not returned."I'm afraid, General, we have to rely on the appealof the leaflet."

have the prefix a. ablaze, afire, aflame, afoot, afraid, awake.

are mainly used in the function of a predicative. may be used as objective predicative.

may be sometimes used as attributes. But unlikeadjectives they cannot be placed before thewords they modify. As attributes they may beonly used in post-position:

He is awake.She was saying that she intended to leave himentirely alone again.The father and mother dolls, who sprawled very stiffas though they had fainted in the drawing-room, andtheir two little children asleep upstairs were reallytoo big for the doll's house.

can be modified by adverbs of degree: Sally had been halfasleep with her head on Eddie'slap.

may take prepositional indirect objects. I am ashamedof you.

THE VERBThe verb is a part of speech which denotes an action.

A) The grammatical categories:

Grammaticalcategories

Characteristics Examples

person In Modern English there are but few forms indicating

person and number in the synthetic forms of the verb.These are:

a)the third person singular Present

Indefinite Indicative: He speaks.b) the Future Indefinite Tense: Ishall speak/ he will speaknumber

tense It denotes the relation of the action either to themoment of speaking or to some definite moment inthe past or future.

16 tenses in English

aspect It shows the way in which the action develops,whether it is in progress or completed.

Perfective non-perfectiveProgressive non-progressive

voice It indicates the relation of the predicate to the subjectand the object. There are two voices:

a) activeb) passive

mood It indicates the attitude of the speaker towards theaction expressed by the verb from the point of view ofits reality.

a) the indicative moodb) the imperative moodc) the subjunctive moodd) the conditionalmood

B) Types of verbs:

Types ofverbs

Characteristics Examples

transitive Require a direct object, i.e. they express an action

which passes on to a person or thing directly. Herebelong such verbs as to take, to give, to send, to make,to see, to show, to bring, to love etc.There are other verbs which can be used either with orwithout a direct object, such as to read, to write, tohear, to see. Usually, in this case the object is clear

Ive known these people for a

long time.

Iwrote (a letter) to him a monthago.


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from the context.

intransitive Cannot take a direct object. Here belong such verbs asto stand, to sleep, to laugh, to think, to lie, to swim.

Note:There are verbs whose primary meaning is transitiveand whose secondary meaning is intransitive. Here

belong such verbs as to sell, to read, to add, to act, etc.There are verbs whose primary meaning is intransitiveand whose secondary meaning is transitive. Here

belong such verbs as to work, to starve, to walk, torun, etc.

She shrank slowly away from him,andstoodquite still.

She sells books. (transitive)This booksells well.

Yesterday I walked far.(intransitive)

He walked the horse to and fro.( transitive)

finite forms Verbs may have finite forms - which can be used as thepredicate of a sentence.

Hearing the noise, she openedthedoor.

non finiteforms

Verbs may have non-finite forms - which cannot beused as the predicate of a sentence.

Hearingthe noise, she opened thedoor.

According to their morphological structure verbs are divided into:

simple Read, live, hide, speakderived Have affixes. Magnify, fertilize, captivate, undo, decomposecompound Consist of two stems. Daydream, browbeatcomposite Consist of a verb and a postposition of

adverbial origin.Sit down, come in, go out.

According to their syntactic function verbs are divided into:

notional Are those which have a full meaning of their own andcan be used without any additional words as a simple

predicate. Here belong such verbs as to write, toread, to speak, to know, to ask.

Ricky surrounded her with great careand luxury.She knew what he was thinking.

auxiliary Are those which have only a grammatical function.They are used in analytical forms. Here belong suchverbs as to do, to have, to be, shall, will, should,would.

I dont recollect that he ever didanything, at least not in my time.Their father ... had come from

Dorsetshire near the beginning of the

century.link Are verbs which to a smaller or greater extent havelost their meaning and are used in the compoundnominal predicate.NB. In different contexts the same verb can be usedas a notional verb and an auxiliary verb or a linkverb:

The house was big .The old face looked worn and hollowagain.

... She turned her head sullenly awayfrom me. (notional verb)She ... turneddeadly pale. (link verb)

modal Are a special group of verbs which cannot be usedwithout additional words, though they have a

meaning of their own, such as can, may, must, ought,etc.The same verb in different contexts can be modalandauxiliary.

You mustcome on time.You should listen to her more

attentively.I crouched against the wall of thegallery so that I should not be seen.(auxiliary verb)

I dont honestly think Lady Crowan was


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exaggerating when she said somethingshouldbe done in your honour. (modalverb)

According to their lexical meaningverbs are divided into:

terminative Denote an action implying a certain limit beyond which

it cannot go: to come, to bring, to build, to give, to take,to receive, to find, to fall, to kill, to die, to become, tostand up, to sit down, to come to.

He went to the kitchen and

broughthim a cake and a plate ofbiscuits.

durative Denote a certain action which does not imply any limit:to live, to exist, to sleep, to love, to be, to have, to

possess, to work, to speak, to respect, to smoke, etc.

He loved the Old Masters ofpainting.

verbs ofdoublelexicalcharacter

In certain contexts have a terminative meaning, and inothers, a durative meaning: to stand, to kneel, to sit, toknow, to remember, etc.

He sat very still a moment.(durative)

I went and sat beside him.(terminative)

TENSES IN THE ACTIVE VOICE

THE INDICATIVE

Table of tenses

Present Past Future Future in the PastIndefinite I go to the theatre

every week.I went to thetheatre last week.

I shall go to thetheatre next week.

I said I should goto the theatre next

week.Continuous Dont speak to him.

He is working.When I came, hewas working.

Dont come at 8. Ishall be working.

He said he wouldbe working at 8oclock.

Perfect I have known himfor two years.

When I came, hehad already left.

By 2007 I shallhave known himfor twelve years.

I said I shouldhave read all the

books by the first ofApril.

PerfectContinuous

My hands are dirty.I have beenworking in thegarden.

I was very tired. Ihad been readinga lot.

By the first of MayI shall have beenreading the bookfor a fortnight.

I said that by thefirst of May Ishould have beenreading the bookfor a fortnight.

1. The Present Indefinite1.1 FormAffirmative and negative

Positive Negative

in Chisinau.

IWe

YouThey

live do not(dont) live

He/ She/ It lives does not (doesnt ) live


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Interrogative and short answersInterrogative Short answers

positive negativeDo I

weyou

they live in Chisinau? Yes,

Iweyou

they

do.

No,

Iweyou

they

do not (dont)

Does hesheit

hesheit

does. hesheit

does not (doesnt)

1.2 UseThe Present Simple is used to express:a repeated action, a habit. It is used with adverbs offrequency (always, often, sometimes, usually, never)to express how often something happens.

Wego to school by bus.We sometimes sleep late.

a fact which is always true. Ice melts in the sun.My daughterhas brown eyes.

a fact which stays the same for a long time. He works in a bank.sometimes in giving the summary of a story. The prince decides to enter the cave. He enters the

cave and there sees a witch.an officially planned action or an action belonging toa settled program.

The championship starts next Saturday.

a future actiona) in a conditional clause:

b) in a time clause:c) with verbs of motion such as to go, to come, toleave, etc.

If you come tomorrow, well go to the cinema.You will see your cousin when you come.The train leaves at 10.00 tomorrow.

1.3Spelling of verb + -sThe normal rule is to adds to the base form of theverb.

Wants, eats, drives, reads

Addes to verbs that end inss, -sh, -ch, -x, z. Kisses, washes, watches, fixes, buzzes.

Verbs that end in a consonant + y change toies.NB. Verbs which end in a vowel + y only adds.

Carry - carries, fly - flies, worry - worries, try - triesBuys, says, plays, enjoys

A few verbs have irregular forms. Be is, are do does

Go goes have- has

1.4 Pronunciation.There are three different pronunciations for the final-s of the third person singular: [s], [z], [iz].[s] after the sounds: [p], [t], [k], [f]. Tops, gets, takes, laughs[z] after the sounds [b], [d], [g], [v], [ ], [m],

[n], [], [l], and [r], and all vowel sounds.Describes, sends, hugs, lives, bathes, seems,remains, sings, tells

[iz] after the sounds [s], [z], [], [t] [ ], [ ]. Relaxes, freezes, rushes, massages, watches, judgesDo and say have a change in vowel sound. Say [ ], says [ ]

Do [ ], does [ ]

2. The Present Continuous2.1 Formam/ is/ are + verb + -ing(present participle)


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Affirmative and negativePositive Negative

working.

I m (am) m not

WeYouThey

re (are) arent (are not)


positive negativeAm I

working? Yes,

I am.

No,

I m not.

Ishesheit

hesheit

is.hesheit

isnt.

Are

we

youthey

we

youthey are.

we

youthey arent.

2.2 UseThe present continuous is used to express:an activity that is happening now. You cant see Jane. Sheshavinga bath.an activity or situation that is true now, but is notnecessarily happening at the moment of speaking.

Dont take that book. Jane is readingit.Im doinga French evening course this year.

a temporary activity. Imlivingwith my friends until I find a place ofmy own.

a planned future arrangement. Imhavinglunch with Jane tomorrow.a frequent repetition of an activity which has a distinctmeaning ofannoyance, irritation, sarcasm. In this casethe verbs are usually combined with such adverbs as:always, constantly, continually, for ever.

He is always borrowingmoney from his friendsbut never gives it back.

with verbs to get or to grow to express a transition fromone state to another.

Itis gettingdarkOur parents are gettingolder and older.

2.3 Spelling of verb + -ingAdding to the base form of the verb. going, wearing, visiting, eating

Verbs that end in onee lose thee.NB. Verbs that end inee dont lose anee. smoking, coming, hoping, writingagreeing, seeingIn verbs of one syllable, with one vowel and oneconsonant, the consonant is doubled.NB. If the final consonant isy orw, it is not doubledNote:lie lying

stopping, getting, running, planning, jogging

playing, showing

2.4 Verbs not used in the Continuous

Verbs ofthinking and opinion Believe, think, understand, suppose, expect, agree, doubt, know,

remember, forget, mean, imagine, realize, deserve, prefer, foresee,guess, mind, regard, suppose, trust, recollect.

Verbs ofemotions and feelings Like, love, hate, care, hope, wish, want, admit, abhor, adore, detest,please, dislike, displease.

Verbs ofpossession Belong, have, hold, keep, owe, own, possess.


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Verbs of senses Look, hear, taste, smell, feel, notice.

Verbs ofstate/ condition appear, be, consist, contain, differ, deserve, equal, exist, resemble,seem, suit.

NB. When the subject is a person,

we often use can:Some of these verbs can be used inthe Present Continuous, but with achange of meaning. In theContinuous, the verb expresses anactivity, not a state.

Canyou smellsomething burning?

Ithinkyou are right. (opinion)Iwasjustthinkingwhat a long way it is. (mental activity)He has a new car. (possession)Shes havinga bath. (activity)The tea tastesstrongly of mint. (activity)

Imtastingthe soup to see if it needs salt. (activity)

3. The Past Simple3.1 Formverb + -edAffirmative and negative

positive negativeIHe/ She/ ItWeYouThey

arrivedwent did not (didnt) arrive/ go yesterday.

Interrogative and short answers

Interrogative Short answerspositive negative

Did

Ihe/ she/ itweyouthey

arrive? Yes,


did. No,


didnt.

To beAffirmative and negative

positive negative

IHe/ She/ It was was not (wasnt)

yesterday.WeYouThey

were were not (werent)


positive negative

Was Ihe/ she/ itthere? Yes,

Ihe/ she/ it was.No,

Ihe/ she/ it wasnt.

Were weyou

weyou

were. weyou werent.


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they they they

3.2 Spelling of regular verbs1. add -edto the infinitive of the verb: worked, started2. if the verb ends ine, addd: lived, loved3. if the verb has only one syllable and ends in a vowel-consonant

combination, the final consonant doubles.NB.cooked, seated, , moaned,because there are two vowels.

The consonant is not doubled if it is y, x, orw.

stopped, planned

played, mixed, showed4. In most two-syllable verbs, the end consonant is doubled if the stress is

on the second syllable.NB. Exception is the final consonantl.

pre`ferred, ad`mitted

traveled5. verbs that end in a consonant + -y change toied:NB. We write enjoyed , because it ends in a vowel + y.

studied, carried

3.3 Pronunciation-edis pronounced in the following way:

[d] after[b, g, n, l, m, v, z, w, r, , ]and the vocalic sounds: opened [oupnd], answered [ans d]

[t] after[,f, k, p, s, , t ]: worked [w kt], hopped [ ], published[id] after[d, t ]: lasted [ la:stid ], intend [ in tendid]

3.4 UseThe past Indefinite expresses:a past action that is now finished. John lefttwo minutes ago.a succession of past actions. He threw down his spade andenteredthe house.

repeated actions in the past. He made an entry in his diary every night.

in conditional clause If Iwere you, I would accept the proposal.in time clauses He promised me that he would tell me the truth when

he knew it.

3.5 The translation of the Past Simple into RomanianPerfect cmpus When he openedthe door, he saw the dog.

Cnda deschis ua, vzu cinele.Perfect simpluImperfect The little boy was very tired.

Bieelulera foarte oboist.Conjunctive perfect Helen said that she felt lonely before she methim.

Elena a spus c se simea singur nainte s-l fi ntlnit.Condiional prezernt I would read that letter if hegave it to me.A citi scrisoarea aceea dac el mi-ar da-o.

Prezent I didnt know she lovedmusic.Nu tiam c-iplace muzica.

Verbs

regular irregular


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Viitor He girl said that she would come here when she was free.Fata a spus c va veni aici cndva filiber.

4. The Past Continuous4.1 Formwas/ were + verb + -ing(present participle)

Affirmative and negativepositive negative

working.

IHe/ she/ it

was wasnt (was not)

WeYouThey

were werent (were not)


positive negativeWas Ihesheit working? Yes,

Ihesheit

was.

No,

Ihesheit

wasnt

Wereweyouthey

weyouthey

were.weyouthey

werent.

4.2 Use

The Past Continuous is used:to express an activity in progress before, and

probably after, a particular time in the past.At 7.00 Iwas havingbreakfast.

to describe a situation or activity during a period inthe past.

Jane looked lovely. She was wearinga green cottondress. Her eyes were shining in the light of thecandles thatwere burningnearby.

to show that two or more actions were going on atthe same time in the past.

While motherwas cooking, fatherwas readingandgrandmotherwas knitting.

to express an interrupted past activity. When I returned, she was sweepingthe floor.to express an incomplete activity in the past in orderto contrast with the Past Simple which expresses acompleted activity.

I was reading a book during the flight. (I didntfinish it.)But: I wrote a letter during the flight. ( the wholeletter)

with always to express repeated action in the pastwhich annoys the speaker.

These children were always laughing during myclasses.

in conditional clauses. What would you say if the boys were sleepingnow?

5. The Present Perfect

5.1 Formhave/ has + verb + -ed(regular verbs) have/ has +past participle (irregular verbs)Affirmative and negative

positive negative


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worked/begun.

IWeYouThey

ve (have)have not (havent)

HeSheIt

s (has) has not (hasnt)


positive negative

HaveIweyouthey worked/begun? Yes,

Iweyouthey

have.

No,

Iweyouthey

havent.

Hasheshe/ it

heshe/ it has.

heshe/ it hasnt.

5.2 Use

The Present Perfect is used:to look back from the present into the past, andexpress what has happened before now. The actionhappened at an indefinite time in the past.The action can continue to the present, and probablyinto the future.

Ivemeta lot of famous people. (before now)She has won awards. (in her life)

Many pupils have learnt in this school. (many stilllearn here)

to express an experience as part of someones life.Everand neverare common with this use.

Ivetraveleda lot in Europe.Have you everbeen in a car crash?My mother has neverflown in a plane.

to express an action or state which began in the past

and continues to the present.Forand sinceare common with this use. We useforwith a period of time, andsince with a point in time.

How longhave you workedas a teacher?

Weve lived herefortwo years. (a period of time)Ive had a beard since I left the army. (a point intime)

to expresses a past action with results in the present. Ive lostmy wallet. (I dont have it now).

when we are no longer interested in the time whenthe past action took place, but in its result into the

present.

I have visited an interesting museum. (I stillremember the things seen there).

to express completed activities in the immediate past.In this case, the verb is generally accompanied by:

just, lately, of late, lately, till now, up to now, so far,up to the present, during the last week the last toodays, these twenty minutes, etc.

The train has justleft. (I left a little time ago)

with words denoting an incomplete period of time:today, this week, this month, this year, this night, thismorning etc.

Last week we wrote three letters, but this week wehave written only one.

to express a future action, in a time clause I shall ring you up as soon as/ after motherhascome back.

6. The Present Perfect Continuous

6.1 Formhave/ has + been + verb + -ingAffirmative and negative

positive negative


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been running.

IWeYouThey

have (ve) have not (havent)

HeSheIt

has (s) has not (hasnt)


positive negative

HaveIweyouthey been running? Yes,

Iweyouthey

have.

No,

Iweyouthey

havent.

Hashesheit

hesheit

has.hesheit

hasnt.

6.1 UseThe Present Perfect Continuous is used to express the same kind of meaning as the Present Perfect, thoughthe action is very often still happening. This tense emphasizes the length of time the action has taken place.There is no clear division between the use of the Present Perfect and the Present Perfect Continuous. Timeindications: how long?, since when, since, for

Ihave been writingsince I came here.

The Present Perfect Continuous is used:to express an activity which began in the past and continuesto the present, emphasizing its duration in the present.

NB. Present Perfect implies that the attention is focused onthe repetition or on the completion of an action.

Mary has been wateringthe flowers for halfan hour. (she is still doing the job)

Motherhas watered the flowers. (Her job hasjust been done.)

to refer to an activity with a result in the present. My hands are dirty because I have beenworkingin the garden.

since the Present Perfect Continuous describes an actionwhich is apparently uninterrupted, it will not be employedwhen we mention the number of times a thing has been doneor the number of things that have been done.

Ihave been drinkingtea since 5oclock.But Ihave drunkthree cups of tea since5oclock.

7. The Past Perfect7.1 Formhad + verb + -ed(regular verbs); had +past participle (irregular verbs)Affirmative and negative

positive negativeIHe/ She/ ItWeYouThey

hadarrived/ gone had not (hadnt) arrived/ gone before 10.00.


positive negative


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Had


arrived/gone Yes,


had. No,


hadnt.

7.2 Useto express an action in the past which happenedbefore another action in the past.

When I got home, John had cookeda meal.When I got home action 1

John had cooked a meal action 2to express duration up to a certain moment in the

past:By the time the rain started, we had cleanedthewhole house.

often with just, already, hardly/ barely/ scarcelyand no sooner, to show that the past action wasfinished a little time before another past action.

Ihad hardly/ scarcely/ enteredthe room, whensomebody rang the bell.

to express a Past Conditional in a conditional clause: I would have helped her if Ihad known.

8. The Past Perfect Continuous8.1 Formhad + been + verb + -ingAffirmative and negative

positive negativeIHe/ She/ ItWeYou

They

had had not (hadnt) been running.


positive negative

Had


beenrunning?

Yes,


had. No,


hadnt.

8.2 Useto underline the continuity of a past action to a pastmoment or just before it.

The pupils had been readingthe lesson for fiveminutes when the school master entered theclassroom.The streets were wet. Ithad been raining.

9. The Future Indefinite9.1 Form

shall/ will + short infinitiveAffirmative and negative

positive negative


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in Chisinau.

IWe

shall/ will (ll) live shall not (shant)/will not (wont) live

He/ She/ ItYouThey

will (ll) live will not (wont) live

Interrogative and short answers

Interrogative Short answerspositive negativeShall/will

Iwe

live

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