C Radulescu Motru - Lectii de Logica

8/10/2019 C Radulescu Motru - Lectii de Logica

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C . R Ă D U L E S C U - M O T R U

LECŢII DE LOGICĂLOGICA GENETICĂM E T O D O L O G I ATEORIA CUNOŞTINŢEI



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C A S A Ş C O A L E L O R 1 9 4 3 P R E F A Ţ A





4 C. R. MOTRU: LECŢII DE LOGICĂ

7ceasta în ceeace priveşte datarea scrierii. Lămuririle privitoare la spiritul în care lecţiile au fost concepute, vor trebui să fie mai în amănunt. Ledăm în cele ce urmează.

4u doi ani înainte de a începe lecţiile de Lo%&!'$ publicasem E(" "nt"d" M"t# &0&!'0 ! ', ediţia l a5, în care principala mea preocupare era oe;aminare a teoriei apriorismului din filosofia <antiană. ezultatul la caream a(uns după această e;aminare, mi a desc)is drum spre teorii cu totul opuse apriorismului. *n locul unei conştiinţe în genere, generatoare de forme

şi de idei apriori, care funcţionează la =ant pe plan transcendental, propuneam teoria conştinţei reale omeneşti, care, integratăîn evoluţia totală anaturii, face din realizarea personalităţii umane legea de desfăşurare aenergiei universale. E(" "nt"(" d" M"t# &0&!' sfârşeau prin a sc)iţa teoria,"r on#(& ( & "n"r%"t&! şi a o!#+&"&$despre care am publicat mai târziu,între !'>9 !6 volume separate 0în ?ditura 4asei 2coalelor, &ucureşti5.

Lecţiile de Lo%&!'$din ! " ) ! #, sunt în spiritul volumelor acestora dinurmă, ce se aflau în curs de pregătire. *n ele se continuă îndepărtarea de

apriorismul <antian şi în sc)imb urmăresc acordul dintre postulatele logice şimetodele ce stau la dispoziţia omului de ştiinţă, pentru verificarea adevărului.

Pentru mine, în ! " a fost, cum este şi acum, neclintită convingerea că Logica îşi află fundarea sa în cunoştinţele pro vocale şi verificate dee;perienţă, iar nu în principii formale apriori, îmbogăţirea e;perienţei aducecu sine, în fiecdre epocă, invenţii şi metode noi de cercetare care, dupăverificare, constituesc adevărurile Logicei acelei epoce. @ Logică stabilă,odată şi pentru totdeauna, ca propedeutică a oricărei ştiinţe, trecute şiviitoare, nu e;istă decât pentru acela care se mulţumeşte cu asemănările

superficiale dintre sistemele de Logică. *ntre Logica aristotelică şi Logicatimpului nostru este aceeaşi deosebire ca între $izica aristotelică şi $izicatimpului nostru. 7cela care nu o vede şi face totuşi cercetări de Logică,trăeşte în spirit metafizic, iar nu ştiinţific, precum observă cu dreptate Littreîn prefaţa C r ( & d" &(o o &"5 6o0&t&7& t'a lui 7uguste 4omte.

1etafizicianul stă totdeauna deasupra timpului, fiindcă datele pe baza cărorael speculează, sunt dorinţele sale proprii, iar nu scoase din e;perienţă. 8

Logică stabilă, una pentru toate timpurile, nu e;istă până acum, la ea trebuieînsă să a(ungem la capătul desvoltării ştiinţelorA atunci când minteaomenească va fi în posesia unei sistematizări ştiinţifice desăvârşiteA când

pentru adevărurile noi nu va mai fi nevoie de metode noi de verificare, fiindcă




toate adevărurile vec)i şi noi îşi vor găsi verificarea în metodele cunoscute. 8 Logică, una şi aceiaşi pentru toate timpurile, este aşa dar un ideal, iar nu orealitate, aşa cum ştiinţa timpului nostru nu reprezintă ştiinţa tuturor timpurilor, ci numai aceea a timpului nostru. ?;istă negreşit între sistemele de

Logică, dela o epocă la alta, o trecere care se poate e;plica, aşa cum see;plică şi trecerea dela o fază de cultură la alta, dar trecerea aceasta oricât de bine ar fi e;plicată, nu înlătură caracterul original, pe care îl are fiecare

sistem de Logică în parte. Brebuie să vorbim de o Logică antică, de o Logicămedievală, de o Logică modernă, aşa precum vorbim de o ştiinţă antică,medievalăşi modernă, căci îndreptăţirea este sau aceeaşi, sau deloc, atât

pentru Logică, cât şi pentru ştiinţă. %nitatea Logicei ca şi unitatea ştiinţei, nueste dată dela început, ci ea se realizează în decursul timpului.



Brebuie să vorbim de diferitele sisteme de Logică, nu numai fiindcă aveminteresul de a înţelege mai bine valoarea postulatelor Logicei, ci şi dintr/unmotiv mai imperios. *n caracterul original al fiecărui sistem de Logică, seresfrânge mai limpede, decât c)iar în sistematizările ştiinţei, fizionomia

particulară a fiecărei epoce din cultura umană. Sistemele de Logică, prinaceea că pun în lumină criteriul, după care se (ustifică adevărul, desvălueresortul intim al funcţiunilor de cunoaştere. $iecareepocă de culturăurmăreşte adevărul sub impulsul unui resort al e;perienţei, care variază dela

o epocă la alta. *ntr/una precumpănesc tendinţe iraţionale, într/alta tendinţeraţionale. %na este însetată de mister, iar alta de lumină. 3u sunt două la fel. *n epoca antică a culturii europene, omul căuta un adevăr cu totul altul, decum caută omul din epoca modernă. -espre această diversitate de atitudine,istoria Logicei singură poate da informaţii precise, fiindcă în ea se definesc,cum nu se definesc în istoria niciunei alte ştiinţe, într/un mod perfect, trecereadela o atitudine la alta. *storia Logicei oferă diagrama culturii omeneşti, întot ce aceasta are ca momente istorice mai esenţiale.

Pentru înţelegerea spiritului, în care au fost concepute lecţiile noastre de Logică, este necesar de aceea să arătăm pe scurt deosebirea care e;istă pentru noi, între principalele direcţii ale Logicei şi apoi motivele care ne audeterminat să preferăm direcţia bazată pe metodologia ştiinţelor e;perimentale. 7m redus în lecţiile noastre la câteva noţiuni întreaga aşanumită parte formală a Logicei, înlocuind o cu noţiuni de Logică genetică şicu teorii ştiinţifice contimporane despre psi)ologia gândirii. -e asemeni, amlăsat la o parte logistica şi toate adaosurile, deduse din analiza matematică,deşi ele erau la modă în ! "9 ! # şi mi erau cunoscute din scrierile lui

?rnst Sc)roder 2 or(" n%"n (& "r d&" A(%" r# d"r Lo%& $!85, din ale lui Louis 4outurat 2L# Lo%&; " d" L"& n&0$!8 <5din ale lui Peano şi alţii.Scrierile lui &ertrand ussel şi *lilbert, precum şi ultimul volum din A(%" r#d"r Lo%&a lui Sc)roder, nu apăruseră încă în ! ", dar şi dacă ar fi fost apărute, ele nu mi ar fi sc)imbat planul lecţiilor. ?ram, de pe atunci, câştigat

pentru atitudinea antiformalistăîn Logică, fie că origina formalismului ar fi stat în 1etafizica lui 7ristotel, fie că el ar fi stat în 1atematica universală alui Leibniz. Logica, pentru mine, trăeşte, cerută fiind de ritmul e;perienţaomeneşti, care se întregeşte în ritmul vieţii universale, iar nu ca un )ar al

Logosului deasupra oricărei e;perienţe şi consistând în forme substanţiale

metafizice, sau în forme matematice. Logica izvorăşte din greutăţile vieţiiA



omul a găsit în ea, după multe rătăciri, un mi(loc de orientare practică. Locul potrivit ei este între ştiinţele care fundează normele e;perienţa omeneşti.



,RE=AŢĂ 8

*n ce stă deosebirea dintre direcţiile de Logică, a;ate pe formalism şi care s/au bucurat până acum de preferinţa filosofilor metafizicienişimatematicieni, şi direcţia de Logică spre care înclinăm noiC -eosebirea stăîn atitudinea iniţială pe care o ia mintea logicianului, în căutarea adevărului.

*n ce direcţie caută logicianul adevărulC ** caută el deasupra e;istenţeiomeneşti A într/o lume aparte, transcendentă, eternă şi indiferentă omuluiA şiîn acest caz, el se va considera ca un observator ţinut numai să contemplelumea adevărului, fără a sc)imba din ea cevaA fără a o atinge câtuşi de puţin

prin prezenţa saA sau caută el adevărul în propria sa e;perienţă, şi în acest caz el nu mai este un simplu observator contemplativ al lumii adevărului, cieste un colaborator activ la constituirea acesteia. Prima atitudine o are

filosoful antic şi este până astăzi aceea care se bucură de mai multă trecere.Sistemul logic ed lui Plato este în această privinţă tipic. 7devărul stădeasupra vremelniciei omeneşti, în lumea ideilor eterne, în Logos. 1inteaomenească nu poate a(unge decât la oglindirea imperfectă a acestei lumi.

7ristotel şi ceilalţi logicieni, după Plato, cu toate modificările aduse sistemului platonician, nu au sc)imbat atitudinea iniţială. 7devărul trebuiecăutat deasupra e;perienţii omeneşti, fiindcă în e;perienţa omenească nimic

nu este durabil, necum etern. Prin e;perienţa câştigată în munca de toate zilele, a(ung şi te)nicienii la oarecare cunoştinţe, zice 7ristotel, dar acestecunoştinţe sunt de rang inferior. 7devăratele cunoştinţe decurg apodictic dinnoţiunile care definesc esenţele şi formele eterne 0eidos5. -upă dânsul, întâitrebuie să avem în minte aceste noţiuni 0prima filosof ie5, şi apoi să începemcu aplicaţia regulelor de Logică. 7dică tocmai contrar de cum recomandăomul de ştiinţă astăzi. 7cesta din urmă caută să se inspire din datelee;perienţii, pe când 7ristotel caută să se inspire din contemplaţie. @mul din

popor şi astăzi crede la fel. %n ţăran pe care l am adus să audă pentru primaoară o compoziţie muzicală la adio, îmi spunea după aceea cu toatăconvingerea: văzdu)ul este plin de cânteceA tot meşteşugul este să le poţi

prindeD 1intea omului se scaldă în adevăruriA meşteşugul este să le poţi prinde. -acă nu le poţi prinde acum şi nu le vei putea prinde vreodată,aceasta nu înseamnă că adevărurile încetează să e;iste, ele e;istă în veciivecilor, fie că sunt sau nu sunt prinse. Sau după o imagină a lui Plcdo :adevărurile găsite de mintea omenească sunt ca umbrele care (oacă pe

peretele unei peşteri, unde omul ar sta cu spatele spre intrarea prin care străbare lumina. *n afară sunt obiectele reale, luminoase, iar pe peretele peşterii (oacă umbrele lor. 1intea omului prinde numai umbrele.



,RE=AŢĂ 9

7ceastă atitudine trebuia să ducă negreşit la dominaţia formalismului. *ntre etern şi vremelnic, forma serveşte caEo punte de trecere, fiindcă ea seimpune plin proprietăţile sale, de a fi mai uşor de prins cu mintea şi de a se

păstra mai constantăA mai constantă decât coloarea şi intensitatea luminei. ?a are aparenţă de ceva mai temeinic, întru cât se suprapune ca o ordine stabilă deasupra conţinutului sc)imbător al unei imagini. Plato a folosit forma, cel dintâi. $orma geometrică este pentru el sc)ela pe care minteaomului suie pentru a a(unge să copieze ideile eterne. 7ristotel dete formei unrol încă şi mai important. Pentru el, forma este substanţaA adică aceea cecorespunde adevărului etern. Leibniz, e;tinde noţiunea formei peste întreg

câmpul 7latematicii. Bot ce este adevăr necesar şi universal, este, după el, denatură formal matematic. 1atematica dă tot felul de adevăruri posibile, bineînţeles fără a face apel la e;perienţă, ci prin simple definiţii. -in acesteadevăruri, mintea omenească prinde o parte şi anume partea pe care o poate

folosi în aplicaţii practiceD Făzdu)ul este plin de forme matematice, creaţiilibere ale minţii, fără niciun raport cu e;perienţa: din aceste forme alege

fiecare om de ştiinţă aceea ce îi convine şi lasă restul să planeze mai departeîn văzdu), căci aceea ce este fără aplicaţie practică este şi fără interes

ştiinţific. Leibniz merge c)iar mai departe. ?l pune ipoteza că, formelematematice ar fi putut fi toate şi fără aplicaţie în lumea în care irăeşte omul,aşa că adevărurile ar fi putut foarte bine să rămână în sfera lor, departe pevecie de viaţa omenească, dacă bunul -umnezeu nu s/ar fi îndurat să înlătureaceastă disarmonie şi n/ar fi dat omului o lume în care formele totuşi sunt aplicabile. $ormalismul acesta, susţinut pe credinţa în adevărul transcendent, a dăinuit şi dăinueşte în parte şi acum în Logică, cu toate că în

ştiinţa modernă a fost de mult recunoscută participarea e;perienţei la producerea adevărului. Bradiţia sEa arătat în cazul acesta mai puternicădecât ştiinţa. Bradiţia a făcut să se continue cu subestimarea datelor e;perienţa. -eşi e;perienţa, încă dela începutul erei moderne, nu se întemeia

numai pe funcţiunile simţurilor, ci şi pe instrumente de măsurătoareAcronometrul şi instrumentele optice de precizie erau întrebuinţate c)iar deGalileiA în filosofie totuşi se continuă a se da e;perienţa un înţeles pe(orativ.

Pentru =ant, e;perienţa era o simplă multiplicitate de date subiectiveD ?;perienţa, mi(locită prin instrumentele de precizie mecanică, careeliminează condiţiile



subiective ale individului e;perimentator şi întruneşte caracterele obiectivitătii cerute de raţiune, de aceasta nu se vorbeşte aproape nici astăzi în

filosofie. Pentru unii filosofi, toată te)nica instrumentală de laborator nureuşeşte să dea datelor e;perienţa sensibile obiectivitatea, pe care reuşeşte săo dea, ca prin minune, formele atribuite raţiunii. *n spri(inul acestei tradiţiivine de sigur şi limba(ul. ?l ne a obişnuit să căutăm adevărul în afară dee;perienţăA să zicem că l >descoperim ?$iar nu că l inventăm, aşa cum tot el ne forţează să zicem : soarele răsare dimineaţa, deşi el stă nemişcat pe loc.



Bradiţia formalismului este aşa de puternică, încât însăşi filosofii care sunt convinşi că originea adevărului stă în e;perienţă, nu rezistă totuşi latentaţia de a da formelor un rol suprae;perimentalA de a le face să planezecât mai sus. 7stfel filosoful *mmanuel =ant, bunăoară. 3u este un alt filosof,care să fi recunoscut, ca dânsul, eroarea credinţei că adevărul aparţine uneilumi în afară de noi. ?l a demonstrat cât de şubrede sunt afirmaţiile vec)ei

1etafizici, care lua drept realităţi aceea ce erau doar produsele ideologiei. ?l a dărâmat ontologia ridicată de şcoala raţionalistă, în domeniul faptelor

sufleteşti, eliminând de peste tot substanţele. 2i cu toate acestea, =ant nu se poate dispensa de anumite forme care planează deasupra e;perienţa şi deanumite categorii care diri(ează de pe înălţime (udecata omului.Branscendentul nu mai este pentru el obiect de cunoaştere, ci rămâne în afarăca un mare necunoscut, dar în sc)imb este instituit planul transcendental al apriorismului, care de fapt aminteşte Logosul din filosof ia lui Plato. Pe bazaapriorismului el descoperă, fără concursul e;perienţa, adevăruri universale

şi necesare, şi aceste adevăruri sunt tocmai acele date de 1atematică. Gonite pe o uşă, formele matematice ale lui Leibniz, creatoare de tot felul deadevăruri posibile, revin aşa dar pe cdtă uşă, cu acelaşi prestigiu ca mai

înainte. -e altfel =ant, de câte ori vorbeşte de e;perienţă, o numeştee;perienţa posibilă 0moglic)e ?rfa)rung5, dând a înţelege că e;perienţaomenească este o simplă posibilitate e;perimentală, iar nu unica e;perienţă,aşa cum şi Leibniz nu limitează câmpul de aplicaţie, al adevărurilor la oe;perienţă, aceea omenească, ci lasă liber acest câmp, pentru orice fel dee;perienţă, fie omenească sau nu. 4u alte cuvinte, este un simplu noroc căomul găseşte, în rândul adevărurilor posibile, adevărurile pe care le poateaplicaD7titudinea, opE<să formalismului, caută originea adevărului, nu într/oe;perienţă posibilă, ci în e;perienţa omenească, şi numai în e;perienţaomenească. 7devărul, pentru ea, este un moment al vieţii omeneşti 5 un

produs al funcţiunilor acesteia, care funcţiuni îşi găsesc o prelungire naturalăîn te)nica instrumentală. 4ultura este o prelungire a vieţii. 7devărul nucoboară din transcendent, ci se Edesfăşură imanent, deodată cu creştereaculturii în sufletul omului. 3u se descoperă, ca un lucru de dar, ci naşte dinvirtualităţile vieţii. 7ceastă atitudine însă şi a făcut cu multă greutate adepţi

printre logicieni. ?a nu este nici astăzi triumfătoare. *n ! "9 ! #, când au fost ţinute lecţiile de faţă, ea se găsea încă într/o situaţie ne)otărîtă. *n afarăde Ho)n Stuart 1ill, care o reprezenta în 7nglia, de şcoala pozitivistă a lui

7uguste 4omte, care o reprezenta în $ranţa, de la<ob $r. $ries, &enno

?rdmcinn, 4)r. SigIart, Jil)elm Jundt, ic)ard 7venarius, ?rnst 1ac),



$ranz &rentano, care o reprezentau, cu unde rezerve la unii, în Germania şide şcoala pragmatistă 04. S. Peirce, Jilliam Hames, Ho)n -eIeg5, din

7merica, toate publicaţiile de Logică ţineau în mare cinste formalismul tradiţional. -e aceea şi conţinutul lecţiilor mele de Logică prezintă uneleezitări, care ar fi lipsit, dacă timpul mi ar fi permis o revizuire radicală.

Greutatea pe care o întâmpină noua atitudine, opusă formalismului, see;plică. ?a este la fel cu greutăţile pe care le au întâmpinat toate inovaţiile

filosofice în decursul timpului. ?ste cunoscut faptul că o nouă atitudine îndeslegarea problemelor filosofice. îşi uşurează răspândirea, nu atât punând înevidenţă tăria propriilor sale argumente, cât punând în evidenţă slăbiciuneaargumentelor pe care se spri(ină atitudinea pe care ea tinde să o înlocuiască.

Logica, pe baza e;perienţei şi a înmulţit partizanii, numai paralel cuînmulţirea dovezilor aduse că Logica bazată pe Logosul transcendent estelegată de consecinţe absurde. -ar această înmulţire de dovezi şi a produsefectul de curând. 2i încă nu întru atât ca ea să convingă pe toată lumea.

Să vedem consecinţele absurde, pe urma cărora vec)ea Logică şi a pierdut prestigiul de odinioară.

Fec)ea Logică, izvorîtă din credinţa că adevărul oglindeşte o realitatetranscendentă, care se desvălue minţii omeneşti prin forme, a avut din celedintâi începuturi cde culturii europene un duşman intransigent în scep ticism.4ritica scepticismului a prins dela început, încă din perioada (ilosofiei eline,

punctul slab al acestei Logici. 3/avem decât să continuăm critica scepticismului, îmbogăţind o cu argumentele noui, oferite de progresul ştiinţific din timpul nostru, pentru a găsi dovada contrazicerilor şi a

absurdităţilor de care am vorbit.



Scepticii elini au pus în circulaţie o mulţime de sofisme şi de parado;uri,care netăgăduit, după mărturia documentelor vremii, erau pe vremea lor de oactualitate mai arzăiKare decât c)iar sistemele metafizice, contra cărora de

se îndreptau. Festitele lor sofisme dovedeau că silogismul, care era fundat perelaţii formale de subsumare, este prea sărac pentru a prinde multiplelerelaţii date de e;perienţă şi că, restrânşi la raţionamentul lui, suntem e;puşila concluzii false. 7poi şi mai vestitele parado;uri, care desvăluiau în plininsuficienţa Logicei vec)i, atunci când era să se dea definiţia : colectivului deobiecteA mişcăriiA raportului între cauză şi efectA vidului şi ine;istenţeiA eroriice stă în drumul adevărului, şi a multor altor definiţii de obiecte pe care omul le întâlneşte în viaţă, dar pe care metafizicianul nu le poate e;plica prin

formalismul vec)eD Logici. 4âte boabe de nisip trebuie să adune cineva pentru ca să aibă o grămadăC 4âte fire de păr sunt de nevoie pe capul omului pentru ca el să nu fie c)elC Pentru asemeni întrebări, nu era răspunsA fiindcădeşi colectivul, format din boabele de nisip, sau din firele de păr, e;ista îne;perienţa omului, în raţionament totuşi nu putea să intre, întru cât nu e;istaun corespondent al lui în lumea substanţială a formelor. 1işcarea e;istă eaoareC *n e;perienţa de toate zilele, toţi o constată. *n realitatea substanţială,

însă, ea nu poate intra fără a pune pe metafizician în contrazicere cu definiţiadată substanţei. 3ici succesiunea dela cauză la efect nu poate să e;iste.Se;tus ?mpiricus dovedeşte că două substanţe nu se pot succeda, ci ele sunt

pe veci simultane. ?fectul e;istă în acelaşi timp cu cauza, fiindcă altminteriele nar mai fi substanţe. -ar vidulC -ar ine;istenţaC 4um pot constitui eleobiecte de adevărC 7devărul trebuie să fie adecuat unui real substanţial.

7tunci ceva adecuat ine;istenţei este o simplă absurditate. *ne;istenţa oe;perimentează totuşi omul în fiecare zi. Fiaţa lui este un ritm susţinut pelupta dintre e;istenţă şi ine;istenţă. *n sfârşit, cum se e;plică apariţia eroriialături de adevărC 4e demon întreţine în lume lupta continuă dintre eroare şiadevărCBoate aceste e;emple, şi alte multe, făceau pe sceptici să conc)idă căadevăr cert nu e;istăA că eroarea şi adevărul deopotrivă sunt simple afirmăriconvenţionale, cerute de interesele fiecărei epoci. 4oncluzia lor erae;agerată, bine înţeles, fiindcă de fapt ei dovedeau, nu netemeiniciaadevărului, ci netemeinicia dogmatismului metafizic, susţinut pe formalismul logic.

4ritica scepticismului nEa împiedecat cu toate acestea continuarea vec)eiatitudini în căutarea adevămlui pe plan transcendent. -impotrivă: vec)eaatitudine îşi serbează triumful său desăvârşit tocmai în timpurile apropicde



nouă şi anume în secolul al F*** lea, când ea stăpâneşte gândirea ştiinţificăeuropeană sub denumirea de determinism universal, -eterminismul universal e;clude cu desăvârşire realitatea conştiinţei omeneşti. 4onştiinţa, ca real, nu

participă la făurirea adevărului. 7devărul, după determinism, este constituit din relaţiile necesare care e;istă dela sine între faptele naturii şi pe care omul nu are decât să le înregistreze. *n acest determinism universal, omul nu are unrol. Legile mecanice sunt ine;orabile şi se impun atât în prezent cât şi înviitor. 4ine a(unge să cunoască aceste legi, are putinţa să şi prevadă c)iar viitorul său propriu, zi cu zi, minut cu minut. 4ăci tot ce se mişcă stă strict determinat în formule matematice şi este c)estiune numai de integrarea unor

diferenţiale pentru a avea întregul curs al timpului. *n teoria determinismuluiuniversal, omul rămâne, cu alte cuvinte, un simplu spectator al legilor naturiiA un spectator în postura cea mai tragică posibilă. ?l are marele noroc

să pătrundă până la cunoaşterea destinului, dar după aceea rămâne străin înmi(locul acestuia. %n mai mare triumf pentru credinţa în transcendenţaadevărului, nu se poede înc)ipui. -eterminismul redă, sub altă formă, vec)ealume a ideilor eterne a lui Plato.

Beoria determinismului universal s/a bucurat în cursul secolului al

F*** lea şi apoi în al l lea de o aşa de mare autoritate, că niciun om de ştiinţă şi niciun filosof, n/au îndrăsnit să o pună la îndoială, însuşi *mm. =ant, dărîmătorul vec)iului dogmatism metafizic şi adeptul atitudinei opusecredinţei în adevărul transcendent, o lasă să subsisteA ba c)iar îi vine îna(utor prin inventarea teoriei apriorismului, după care transcendentul este

scoborît la planul conştiinţei în genereA determinismul nu este transcendent,este totuşi transcendental.

-acă pe fală, determinismul nu a găsii de îndată adversari )otărîţi

printre oamenii de ştiinţă şi printre filosofi, el a găsit mulţi din rândul unora şi altora, care i au fost necredincioşi. 3aturalista care aveau ca obiect decercetare evoluţia pământului şi a vieţii pe pământA biologii şi mai alesistoricii n/au aplicat teoria determinismului în mod consecvent. -acă ar fiaplicat o în mod consecvent, geologii şi biologii nu s/ar fi preocupat de dataapariţiei omului pe pământ, iar istoricii nu ar fi împărţit cursul faptelor istorice, după marile direcţţi luate de interesele popoarelor, ci unii şi alţii ar ficăutat să formuleze legi generale mecanice, neţinând deloc seama de făpturaomului.



-ar inconsecvenţa biologilor şi a istoricilor nu era de natură să compromităautoritatea determinismului. 4ompromiterea nu putea să vină, decât din

partea acelora cari reprezentau ştiinţele ce serveau determinismului de bază,adică din partea 7stronomiei şi a $izicei. 7ceea ce s/aşi întâmplat în primul

pătrar al secolului nostru, în urma lucrărilor lui 7. ?instein de o parte,lucrări care au dus la formularea relativităţii ca lege universală, şi ale lui J.

Meisenberg pe terenul micro fizicei, pe de altă parte, care au dus laconstatarea că nu determinismul, ci indeter minisnml este rezultatul de fapt la care a(unge măsurătoarea ştiinţifică. Prin lucrările lui ?instein şi

Meinsenberg, nu s/a pus în discuţie însăşi natura adevărului ştiinţific, cum din

greşală au crezut unii publicişti popularizatori, ci s/a pus în discuţie numaiatitudinea din care se urmăreşte adevărul. Beoria relativităţii şi aindeterminismului nu afirmă că de acum înainte adevărul ştiinţific este mai

puţin certA căci de faptul că adevărul este apro;imativ pentru om şi nuabsolut, nu s/a îndoit nici PlatoA cele două teorii lasă la o parte natura adevărului şi afirmă numai că adevărul, departe de a fi fi;at de un Logostranscendent, în afară de conştiinţa omenească, este dimpotrivă o elaboraredeterminată de poziţia relativă a omului şi de mi(loacele lui de măsurătoare.

7ceasta revine însă la a zice că certitudinea legilor stabilite de omul de ştiinţă pentru a şi e;plica faptele naturii, este o certitudine fondată penumărul şi perfecţiunea măsurătorilor, întocmai ca şi aceea a legilor

statistice, iar nu pe corespondenţa pe care ar avea o legile cu o realitatedincolo de e;perienţă. Beoria relativităţii şi a indeterminismului ne invită prinurmare să căutăm originea adevărului ştiinţific în e;perienţa omenească,ceea ce ec)ivalează culuarea unei atitudini direct opusă aceleia, cu care neobişnuise formalismul Logicei vec)i.

7bundenţa de formule matematice pe care o constatăm în cercetările de $izică şi tocmai în acelea care stau în legătură cu teoria relativităţii şi aindeterminismului, nu trebuie să ne înşele şi să ne facă să credem că ea poate

fi utilizată ca argument în favoarea determinismului. $ormula matematică nucrează deadreptul adevărul, ci precizează şi ordonează aceea ce gândul

scoate din e;perienţă. ?a este un limba( mai e;act decât, cel obişnuit, dar nimic mai mult. $ormula matematică este mai ales bine venită în ştiinţele alecăror date nu se pot ilustra prin intuiţia obişnuită, aşa cum sunt bunăoarăacelea din 7stronomic şi din 1icrofizică. Pretenţia însă că în formulamatematică ar fi pree;istând virtucd adevăruri dincolo de e;perienţaomenească, aşa cum presupunea 1etafizica lui Leibniz, este o rătăcire. *n

asemenea rătăcire se găsea şi 7ristotel, care atribuia formelor sale



substanţiale o virtualitate apop)antică 0creatoare de lumină5. $ormulamatematică dă ordine şi precizie afirmaţiilor, dar nu dă acestora şi

(ustificarea că sunt adevăruri.

înainte ca lucrările lui 7. ?instein şi Jerner Meisenberg să inve dereze pe deplin netemeinicia determinismului universal şi cu aceasta netemeiniciacredinţei în adevărul transcendent, direcţia cea nouă în Logicăîşi înmulţiseadepţii. 4urentul era pornitA îi lipsea numai popularitatea, pe care adobândit o astăzi prin teoriile relativităţii şi a indeter minismului. Pentrudestul de numeroşi autori de Logică din secolul trecut şi încăE dintre cei maiînsemnaţi, nu făcea îndoială că e;perienţa trebuie pusă la baza adevărurilor logice. 7m citat mai sus pe cei mai cunoscuţi, din ale căror scrieri ne amdocumentat şi noi cu ocazia lecţiilor din ! " ) ! #. -intre aceştia, acelacare ne a influenţat mai mult a fost Jil)elm Jundt, dela care am primit concepţia că obiectul principal al Logicei consistă în 1etodologia ştiinţelor.

7ceastă concepţie îşi are obârşia însă, precum am constatat mai în urmă, în filosoNia pozitivistă a lui 7uguste 4omte.



*n afară de influenţa primită din scrierile de Logică modernă 0fiindcă această prefaţă dă ocazia la mărturisiri5, adăogăm că încă alte două argumente neau făcut să adoptăm pentru lecţiile de Logică dela %niversitatea din

&ucureşti spiritul nouii direcţiiA ba c)iar să l accentuăm într/un mod mairadical, de cum era reprezentat în scrierile timpului.Primul argument l am

scos din importanţa covârşitoare pe, care vedeam că o câştigă, an după an,te)nica instrumentală de laborator. 7m fost dintre aceia, cărora le a fost dat

să asiste, în cursul vieţii lor de studii, la o mare sc)imbare de apreciere, înceea ce priveşte munca de laborator. La începutul studiilor universitare eramînclinat să consider laboratorul ca un atelier de mică importanţă, menit numai să verifice rezultatele dubioase, pe care raţionamentul nu şi le putea

singur defini. Pe vremea studiilor mele universitare, era la modă să se citezecazul savantului fiziolog francez 4laude &ernard, care îritrEun laborator ridicul de sumar, a reuşit să descopere adevăruri ştiinţifice epocale. Bot entusiasmul meu mergea spre improvizaţii geniale. -e această rătăcire cu

greu mi a fost dat să scap. -ar odată scăpat, mi s/au desc)is oc)ii asupraadevăratelor condiţii, în care se produce ştiinţa contimporană. 7m văzut atunci că marile invenţii ştiinţifice ies din laboratoarele înzestrate cu o

bogată instalaţie te)nică, fiindcă numai acestea sunt în măsură să dea viaţăimprovizaţiilor geniale. *mprovizaţiile geniale nu sunt aşa de rare precum secrede. 4ercetând istoria culturii umane, constatăm că ele nu numai că sunt numeroase, dar că sunt dăruite de nedură în mod generos la oameni de tot

felul: la oameni de ştiinţă, la poeţi şi c)iar la diletanţi. La ce folos însă acesteimprovizaţii, dacă ele nu se verifică şi nu sunt puse în practicăC 4ând improvizaţiile privesc e;plicarea unor obiecte, sau fapte elementare dinnatură, verificarea lor sumară încă mai mergeA dar când privesc obiecte şi

fapte, pe(eare omul nu le poate prinde cu simţurile, sau care sunt în proporţiicare depăşesc scara măsurei omeneşti, ce însemnează ele atunci pentru

ştiinţăC Hules Ferne a improvizat o viaţă întreagă tot felul de invenţii, până şiun voia( la lună şi totuşi pentru ştiinţă el este ine;istent. @ afirmare pe câtăvreme nu este verificată, este ca o vorbă aruncată în vânt, pe care nu se poate

pune temei. ?a intră în ştiinţă prin verificare. *ar verificarea datează în ştiinţă dela întrebuinţarea instrumentelor de observaţie şi de măsurătoare.Be)nica instrumentală, care de fapt este o prelungire a e;perienţei simţurilor,a dat posibilitate ştiinţei să se desvolte. $iecare epocă din istoria culturiiomeneşti îşi are ştiinţa pe care te)nica sa instrumentală o poate susţine şiduce mai depart<.

Be)nica instrumentală nu produce însă dela sine ştiinţa. 7cela care posedă şi



vrea să aibă un folos de pe urma ei, trebuie să i cunoască



todele speciale de întrebuinţare. 7ceste metode sunt diferite, după obiectul la care se aplică şi dupămple;itatea scopului, pe care îl urmăreşte acela care le întrebuinţează. @ metodă, redusă la o iniţieremală, care să fie valabilă pentru orice te)nică instrumentală, este în vremea noastră o curatăposibilitate. Fremea unei asemenea metode a fost la începutul desvoltării ştiinţei, pe când te)nicatrumentală consista în câteva aparate de măsurătoare pentru Geometrie. 7stăzi, te)nica instrumentalăe o strictă specializare. $iecare bărbat de ştiinţă îşi are metoda de lucru potrivită la un program special cercetare. Boţi cer răspunsuri dela e;periment, fiecare însă pune e;perimentului întrebarea sa specială.aceea, în Logica nouă, cum de e;emplu în Logica lui Jil)elm Jundt, 1etodologia diferitelor ştiinţe

upă un loc aşa de întins.

La acest argument s/a mai adăogat un al doilea, acesta ieşit din o împre(urare particularăvăţământului nostru. *n organizaţia $acultăţii de $ilosofic şi Litere dela %niversitatea din &ucureşti, îni ! " 9 ! # şi încă mulţi ani după aceia, Logica aparţinea, dimpreună cu Psi)ologia e;perimentală şiBeoria cunoştinţei, la o singură catedră. Pe studenţii pe cari aveam să i lămurim într/o zi asupra gândiriiice, trebuia a doua zi să i deprindem prin te)nica de laborator să i)terpreteze corect datele e;perienţeileteşti. -acă 2 între logicism şi psi)ologism am fi considerat că este o prăpastie, aşa cum ne îndeamnă ade unii logicieni de şcoală metafizică, atunci ar fi trebuit să ne servim de două mentalităţi diferite, în

ţiile ce ţineam de pe aceeaşi catedrăA adică, în definitiv, să sacrificăm adânca noastră convingere îndreptăţirea metodei e;perimentale. 7m considerat de aceea ca o încura(are în plus, pentru a îndreptaţiile de Logică în spiritul nouei direcţii, împre(urarea că, în organizarea studiilor $acultăţii de $ilosofieLitere dela %niversitatea unde funcţionam ca profesor, Logica era întrunită în aceiaşi catedră cu)ologia e;perimentală.

7cesta este spiritul în care au fost concepute lecţiile de Logică. Sfârşim cu câteva cuvinte, asupraopului didactic.zilele nostre, Logica nu duce lipsa publicaţiilor. Pe fiecare an apar manuale de Logică, precum şi diferite

dii de revistă în legătură cu problemele de Logică. Logica duce însă lipsa unei actualităţi practice. ?a,e s/a considerat totdeauna a fi ştiinţa din care învăţăm regulile adevărului, în practică nimeni nu recurgeea. *n discuţiile care se nas



cPREFAŢĂ 19

pentru spri(inirea unui adevăr, sau pentru combaterea unei erori, prezenţa einu se face deloc simţită. Singurul loc, unde prezenţa ei este atestată, dacă nu

şi simţită, este şcoala. 7ci ea îşi are locul asigurat de tradiţia învăţământului.

-ar cu un rol îndoielnic. -eparte de a înviora învăţământul, ea se adaogă înel, ca o povară în plus, la cunoştinţele ce trebuie memorizate.

*n această situaţie minoră na fost Logica totdeauna. 7ltădată ea formacentrul preocupărilor, atât pentru mintea filosofului, cât şi pentru minteaomului de ştiinţă. 4âteodată c)iar, unica preocupare.

Situaţia minoră de astăzi este datorită faptului că cercetările de Logică,începând cu timpurile moderne, n/au mai ţinut pasul cu desvoltarea ştiinţelor.

?le au rămas cantonate în metodica ştiinţelor din vremea lui 7ristotel şi înraţionalismul formal al matematicilor, înstrăinându se din ce în ce mai mult de metodica ştiinţelor e;perimentale. Pentru Logica modernă, e;perienţa arămas în înţelesul de multiplicitate de date sensibile, c)emată a constituiobiect de ştiinţă numai dacă se subsumează ordinei raţionale, aşa ca pevremea lui Plato, fără a ţine însă în seamă că în timpurile moderne aceastămultiplicitate de date sensibile este mi(locită de instrumente de observaţie

precisă şi că astfel este transformată deadreptul într/o ordine obiectivă.Be)nica instrumentală de laborator, întregeşte şi corectează datele simţurilor,

înlăturând totdeodată din mi(locul acestora vremelnicul subiectiv pe care l constatau cu durere altădată filosofii. ?;perienţa dela baza ştiinţelor e;perimentale moderne nu mai este vec)ea multiplicitate nestatornică de

păreri individuale, ci este o e;perienţă cu totul nouă: bogată şi obiectivăAconstruită prin măsurătoare. înţelegerea acestei noi e;perienţe n/a pătrunsîncă pe deplin în cărţile de Logică de astăzi, care mai toate persistă învec)ea direcţie a formalismului.

&ine înţeles te)nica instrumentală nu înlocuieşte însăşi funcţia inventivă

a piinţiiA aceasta este dată omului dela naturăA rostul te)nicei este să a(utenumai ca această funcţie să nu se rătăcească în construcţii de raporturi

subiective, ci să se ordoneze deadreptul în raporturi obiective ştiinţifice. 7cest rost, atât pe cât este, este de o mare însemnătate pentru desvoltarea ştiinţei. 1ulţumită te)nicei ştiinţelor e;perimentale, viaţa popoarelor europene se găseşte astăzi într/un tempo de ascensiune culturală, cu totul necunoscut lumii de până flei. Singure, cercetările de Logică



@1 C. R. MOTRU: LECŢII DE LOGICĂ

'Estau departe de metodica ştiinţelor e;perimentale. ?le persistă în cea maimare parte, să considere, drept unicul lor obiect de interes, forma: când

forma metafizică, în înţelesul aristotelic, când forma matematică, în înţelesul leibnizian.

4a o reacţiune în contra acestei direcţii formaliste şi pentru a trezi înconştiinţa tineretului universitar legătura statornică ce trebuie să se păstrezeîntre Logică şi desvoltarea ştiinţei e;perimentale am ţinut lecţiile de. .Logicădin anul şcolar ! "N ! #, înaintea studenţilor delci $acultatea de $ilosofic

şi Litere din &ucureşti. Scopul meu n/a fost să dau studenţilor un manual,după care să şi prepare e;amenulA ci un îndemn care să i aducă să reflectezeasupra Logicei, ca problemă. 7m avut mai ales în vedere, că mulţi dintreaceşti studenţi vor fi profesori în şcolile secundare, unde Logica ar trebui să

şi găsească aplicarea în O predarea fiecărui obiect de studiu, nu numai înlecţiile de filosofic, şi unde, în ! " ca şi astăzi de altminteri, ea nu şi găseanicio aplicare, din cauza înstrăinării de ştiinţă, în care o ţine tradiţia.

-ând acest îndemn, eram consecvenţi direcţiei, în care fuseseră concepute scrierile anterioare, , t"r"# ("t"# !' *& E(" "nt" d" M"t# &0&!'5*& pregăteamîn acelaşi timp, la auditorii noştri, înţelegerea ,"r on#(& ( &

En"r%"t&! şi a

o!#+&"&$ scrieri anunţate prin concluziile dela sfârşitul

E(" "nt"(or d" M"t# &0&!'.

4. 7-% L? S4% 1@B %



&utoeşti, Septemvrie !"'. I N T R O D U C E R EL E C Ţ I A I-#



@3 C. R. MOTRT : LECŢII DE LOGICĂ

DE=INIŢIA LOGICEI. )D 6' o d" &n&+&" 7"! " *& Bn!'& (t r' 6 nd&t'# t'0&$ Lo%&!# " t" *t&&n+# !#r" n" Bn7#+' ' % nd&n& d 6' r"%#d"7'r ( &. D" &n&+&# n " t" #( '$ " t" Bn ' 6"r &!&#('$ Bntr ! 6r&nd" t"r "n& ! Bn+"(" n"6r"!& . At t % nd&r"#$ ! t *& r"% (#d"7'r ( & # Bn+"(" r& d& "r&t" d 6' B 6r" r'r&. In !"r!"t#r"# *t&&n+% nd&r"# "r7"*t" n"or& (# &n7"n+&"$ #(t"or& (# o n!' d" 7"r& &!#r"&n7"n+&"$ "# " t" 6ont#n' *& #& #(" "(& "r#t' d" d& !&6(&n'. In d" 7"r& &!#r"$ d& 6otr&7'$ n"d& !&6(&n# *& 6ont#n"&t#t"# tr&!'. C" % nd&r" Bn+"("%" d" &n&+&# Lo%&!"& D#!' "# Bn+"("%"

In7"nt&7'$ #t n!& #!"( &# !#r" 7r"# ' t d&"0" Lo%&!#$ d" &n&+&# #!"# 6 n" Bn#&nt" o 6"r 6"!t&7' 6(&n' d" &( 0&&. N& "n& n d"7&n" &n7"nBn7'+ nd Lo%&!#$ ! n& "n& n d"7&n" 6o"t Bn7'+ nd ,o"t&!#. Lo%&!# "o *t&&n+'$ !#r" n" Bn7#+' ! ' 7"r& &!' % nd&r"# #(tor# *& n"%r"*&% nd&r"# no# tr'$ &#r n ! ' &n7"nt' . Lo%&!# &n7"nt&7' " t" o to6&G nd&r"# &n7"nt&7' o #r" !&n"7# d&n n#*t"r"$ # n o #r" d"(o!. C#rt"# *! &#r *!o#(# n o 6ot d#. N"6r"!&*&$ Bn d" &n&+&# d" #& $ # " "n"# *& t"r "n&& d" >r"% (& #(" #d"7'r ( &?. In !" !on & t' *& !#r" "Bndr"6t'+&r"# #!" tor r"% (& D&n n" "r&!&r"$ # 6r# r' 6 n ( &$ !" "

d#t #!" t"& Bntr" 'r&$ (o%&!&"n&& n # !'0 t Bn!' d" #!ord. A!"& d&n trBn!(&n' 6r" n r' 6 n nd#t 6" 6o t (#t"(" n & Lo%o $ # #(" nn!+& n& r#+&on#(" d" d"# 6r#"F6"r&"n+&& o "n"*t&$ 6" ! nd #!"&$ #

d" t& 6 ( no tr $ Bn!(&n' ' %' "# !' nd# "nt ( *& Bndr"6t'+&r"# #!" tor"% (& Bn "tod"(" d" !"r!"t#r" 6" !#r" # r&d&!#t *& 6" #0# !'ror# 6ro%r" "#0' *t&&n+"(" od"rn". In d" 7o(t#r"# Lo%&!"& # r"6"t#t #6t ($!#r" B( !on t#t' !' # 6"tr"! t Bn d" 7o(t#r"# t t ror *t&&n+"(or !#r" # d"o &"!t 7&#+# ("+"# !' # o ( &5 #n " #6t ($ !' Bn 6r& "(" "F6(&!'r&r"! r (# !# 0" ! tot ( Bnd"6'rt#t" d" "F6"r&"n+# o &*n &t'$ Bn#&nt" d"

t'r & ' ! no# !' #& d" #6ro#6" !ond&+&&(" n#t r#(" Bn !#r" " 6rod !#!t"(" d" n#t r' 6 & o(o%&!'$ or& #!t"(" d" !ond &t'$ or& #!t"(" d"! no#*t"r"$ "t!.$ 6r& && !"r!"t'tor& Bn do "n& ( 6 & o(o%&"&$ *t&&

o!&#(" *& Lo%&!"&$ # r't'!&t 6r&n "r"(" Bn#(t" #(" M"t# &0&!"&.("t"# !' # o ( & # o t d"(# Bn!"6 t !o# ' d&n "d& ( "& n#t r#

6"ntr # & 6 ' Bn d"6"nd"n+' d" tot "( ( d" " "n+" # d" 6r&n!&6&6r#n#t r#(". A!"# t' !on t#t#r" # *& '! t 6" &(o o ( 6o0&t&7& t A %

Co t" ' !r"#d'$ !' " t" Bn &r"# d" 7o(t'r&& *t&&n+"(or o "n"*t& tr"!"r"# 6r&n o #0' t"o(o%&!' *& 6r&n o #0' "t# &0&!'$ Bn#&nt" d" # # n%" (# od" &n&t&7'$ 6o0&t&7& t'. O !on t#t#r" #n#(o#%' '! " 6ro # &( *& &"(&n So!r#t"$ ! (t Bn#&nt"$ ! nd " 6( n%"# !' &(o o &# t& 6 ( &




6( t"*t" Bn no r&$ Bn (o! d" # " o! 6# d" #!"(" !" " 6"tr"! 6" 6' nt.Lo%&!#$ ! d"o " &r"$ # #7 t n"7o&" d" n t& 6 Bnd"( n%#t 6 n' # # n%r"! no# !' "F6"r&"n+# o "n"# !' dr"6t &07or #( #!t"(or d" ! no#*t"r".S"!o(" d"#r nd ($ "# # #7 t ro( ( ' t& &!" & t" "(" &(o o &!"$ d&B*& B 6r t# d" #(t &nt"r& 6o t (#t"(" *& t"or&&(" nd# "nt#(". ALo%&!# ( & ,(#to 2At"n#$ 4@ -)34 $ Bn#&nt" d" C r.< *& # ( & Ar& tot"( )3@@ Bn#&nt" d" C r.< n 6ot & Bn+"(" " 6" d"6(&n d"! t r#6ort#t" (

& t" "(" (or &(o o &!". ='r' &6ot"0# ( && "t"rn" # &d"&(or$ nt 'r' Bn> Lo%o ? *& HH d&#("!t&!# ? d&n Lo%&!# ( & ,(#to. ='r' t"or&# or

t#n+&#(" d&n M"t# &0&!'$ n #r" Bn+"(" &(o%& ( d&n LoAr& tot"(. A!"# t' d"6"nd"n+' !ont&n ' *& Bn t& 6 r&(" #& no&. Lo%&!# L"& n&0 21 4 )1J1 < " t" *t&&n+# 6o & &(&t'+&(or$ &&nd!' #!"# t' * 6o & &(&t'+&(or " t" o no ' d"n &r" 6"ntr &(o o &# #t" #t&

n&7"r #("$ !#r" !on t&t " &"0 ( & t" ( & &(o o &! #( ( & L"& n&( & I . K#nt 21J@4)1 4< Bn tot !" #r" "# or&%&n#( " t" ! 6r&n Bn t"or&#6r&or& ( & *& " t" "F6 ' Bn 6r&n!&6#(# o6"r' &(o o &!' # ( &4ritica raţiunii pure. In #!""#*& tr n ' d"6"nd"n+' d" & t" "(" &(o o &!"$ !#r" ("-# o t %"n"r#to#r"$ " %' "*t" Lo%&!

o . G. =&! t" 21J @)1 14<$ 6r"! *& #!""# # ( & G. . =r. "%"( 21JJ )1 31<. N #& d 6' !" # o t &ntrod " "tod" no& d" !"r!"t#r" 6"ntr! no#*t"r"# 7&"+&& ("t"*t&$ 6r&n !#r" # o t '! t' ! 6 t&n+' "(& " 6 & o(o%&"& *& # *t&&n+"(or o!&#(" d" t t"(# & t" "(or &(od" ! & *& 6"ntr Lo%&!' 6"r 6"!t&7# # tono &"& #(" *t&&n+& &d"o " &r"$ 6r& "(" Bn!"6 t r& #(" non"& 6 & o(o%&&$ #0#t" 6" "F6"r& "nt#("$ # #d ! "(" o #d"7'r#t' r"7o( +&on#r" # "tod"(or d"!"r!"t#r" Bn Lo%&!'. Do% #t& ( "t# &0&!$ !#r" do &n# 7"! "# Lo%&!' *

'!"# 6" (o%&!&"n& ' !# t" #d"7'r ( Bn "r# tr#n !"nd"nt ( &$ # o% d &t 6 t"rn&! *& # "n&n+#t ! d"tron#r"#$ 6r&n " 6&r& ( 6 & o

D&n n" "r&!&r"$ !!" ( " 6&r& ( & n "r " 6r"# d"6#rt". Do% #t&# 6 t t ' r" & t"$ ! & nd -*& or #. D#r Lo%&!# d" n &n" " 7# "(tot *& d" "($ r"( nd ("%'t r# ! "tod"(" *t&&n+"(or "F6"r& "nt#(". In

"tod"(" *t&&n+& &!"$ Bn %"n"r"$ nt ! 6r&n " r"% (!(" d 6' !#r" " 7"r#d"7'r (. A(t" r"% (&$ d"# 6r# "tod"(or t&(&0#t" d" *t&&n+'$ n ##d"7'r (. Ad"7'r ( "F& t' !# #d"7'r *t&&n+& &!5 n &0o(#t$ !& totd"# n# '! 6#rt" d&ntr o *t&&n+' & t" #t&0#t'. In # #r' d" #d"7'r ( *t&&n+& &!$ o&n!&t#+&&(" "F6"r&"n+&&$ "F6r& ' *& #(t" # &r #+&& ! !#r#!t"r d" !"rA!" t"# n nt Bn ' #d"7'r r&$ !& !r"d&n+". Cr"d&n+"(" 6ot & &0o(#t". #6#r+&n ! t"od#t' n & &n% r o . C"rt&t d&n"# (or " t" d" #(t' n#t r




d"! " t" #!""# # #d"7'r ( &. Ad"7'r d" n o &n% r n "F& t'$ !"F& t' !r"d&n+' d" n o &n% r.,r&n r #r"$ 7"! "# d" &n&+&" d#t' Lo%&!"& o 6 t" 6' tr# #& d"6#rt"

od#t' !" #7" %r& # '-& 6r"!&0' t"r "n&&. Lo%&!# " t" *t&&n+# !#r" Bn7#+' *' % nd& d 6' r"% ("(" #d"7'r ( &$ Bn+"("% nd Bn '$ !' "# n Bn7#+' ' &n7"nt' $ !& ' 7"r& &!' !"(" % nd&t" *& n d 6' r"% ("(" 6o t (#t" d" &(o o &$ !& d 6' "tod"(" *t&&n+& &!"$ !on #!r#t" d" Lo%&!#$ ! #(t" ! 7&nt"$ n" Bn7#+' ' #("%" d&ntr" # &r #+&&(" #d! no*t&n+# no# tr' 6" #!"("# !#r" nt Bn #!ord *& 6ot & Bn!or6or#t"

*t&&n+"(or & t" #t&0#t". 1

S& 6(# # &r #r" " t" d"t"r &n#t' d" !ond&+& n& &"!t&7" *& " 6! & # d 6' 6 n!t ( d" 7"d"r" #( !"( & !#r" #!" # &r #r"#$ 6" ! nd

#d"7'r ( *t&&n+& &! " t" d"t"r &n#t d" !ond&+& n&(" d" "F& t"n+o &"!t ( & # &r #t *& " t" &nd"6"nd"nt d" 6 n!t ( d" 7"d"r" #( !"( & !# &r '. D" #!""# # 0& !' (# #d"7'r r&(" *t&&n+& &!"$ !#r#!t"r ( nd# "" t" o &"!t&7&t#t"#. C nd #d"7'r r&(" *t&&n+& &!" nt & t" #t&0#t" !(# n #n &t do "n& d" o &"!t" # #6t"$ #t n!& "(" !on t&t " o *t&&

6"!&#('5 #*# n'o#r': *t&&n+# =&0&!"&$ *t&&n+# C & &"&$ *t&&n+

"t!. Şt&&n+"(" 6"!&#(" #6(&!' "tod"("$ d 6' !#r" nt r"! no ! t"#d"7'r r&(" (or o &"!t&7" *& 7#(# &(" 6"ntr or&*&!" &nt" o "n"# !'$ d

'r' !# "(" ' !"r!"t"0" ! d&n#d&n ( or&%&n"#$ !on t&t &r"# *& 7#(o##!" tor "tod"5 #!"# t' d&n r ' !"r!"t#r" or A&0' o &"!t ( Lo%&!"&.Lo%&!# " t"$ 6r&n r #r"$ *t&&n+# !#r" !"r!"t"#0' or&%&n"#$ !on t&t &7#(o#r"# "tod"(or$ 6" !#r& (" %' & #6(&!#t" Bn to#t" # &r 'r&(" !#r& #!#r#!t"r ( d" o &"!t&7&t#t"$ #d&!' Bn to#t" #d"7'r r&(" *t&&n+& &!"1<.

C"r!"t#r"# Lo%&!"& " #!" ( nd *t&&n+"(" 6"!&#(" "F& t"nt" !# #&&nd!' #!" t"# nt &n% r"(" d#t" &% r". In # #r' d" do "n& ( *t&&n

#('t r& # d"# 6r# *t&&n+"(or$ Bn!"t"#0' 6o & &(&t#t"# 7"r& &!'r&&7"r& &!#r"# n #& " t" 6o & &('$ Bn!"t"#0' *& do "n& ( Lo%&!"&@<. Lo%&!# 6r" 6 n" !' #r" Bn#&nt"# # n !r&t"r& #( #d"7'r ( & Bn '6t &t Bntr o ord" ! no*t&n+" *t&&n+& &!". Bnto! #& ! Gr# #t&!# n t' (# o(& # ( &$ !& (& # ( # or #t Bn od n#t r#($ *& n #& d 6' o( & 7&n" Gr# #t&!# ' n" "F6(&!" r"% (&(" d 6' !#r" 7or & $ *& I# n"7o&"

1ADE ĂRURILE ŞTIINŢI=ICE. ) Ad"7'r ( *t&&n+& &! " t" o # &r #r"

!ontro(#t' *& 7"r& &!#t'$ d 6' #n &t" "tod"$ !#r" B& # &% r' !"rt&t d&n"o #! ' " Bn!or6or"0" Bn & t" ( n"& *t&&n+" 6"!&#(".



@ C. R. MOTRT : LECŢII DE LOGICĂ

n" !or"!t"0" 7or &r"#$ #*# *& Lo%&!#: "# n t' (# Bn!"6 t ( *t&&n+"&$ !&!" *t&&n+# # n ' (# o o#r"!#r" d" 7o(t#r"$ # (' #t ' & " ! no# !' r"% ("(d 6' !#r" # Bn!"6 t *& # d" 7o(t#t. L# Bn!"6 t ( *t&&n+"& nt % nd#r n!#t" (# Bnt 6(#r" d" o# "n&& d" 7o!#+&". D&n #!" t" % nd&r&$ # 6#!"("#$ !#r"$ 7"r& &!#t" d" "F6"r&"n+'$ # #r't#t 6r&"(n&!" "F& t"no "n"*t&5 #!" t"# # !on t&t &t *t&&n+# &"!'r"& "6o!" & tor&!". Un !r&d"# 6r# Bn '6t &r&(or & tor&!" #(" *t&&n+"& n "F& t' 6"ntr Lo%&#d"7'r r&(" *t&&n+& &!" *& !"("(#(t" # &r #+&& #(" &n+&& o "n"*t& d" t" d" or&%&n"$ to#t" &07or' ! d&n #!"("#*& n!+& n& ("t"*t&$ !&

6" !#r" "(" B( r 'r" !. Ad"7'r r&(" *t&&n+& &!" r 'r" ! Bn!or6or#r"# (orBntr o ord&n" d" 7"! & #d"7'r r& 7"r& &!#t" d 6' #n &t" r"% (&$ 6" !# &r #+&&(" !"("(#(t" r 'r" ! #d#6t#r"# #!"( &# !#r" (" #!"$ (#B 6r" r'r&(" !"-1 6r&7" ! 6" "( 6"r on#(.

S nt % nd&r& (t" 6" !#r" &nt"# no# tr' (" 6rod !" 'r' # #7"#&nt"n+&# '!#r d" # "F6r& # 6r&n "(" 7r"o ! no*t&n+' *t&&n+& &!'. In !##!" tor#$ 6r"! *t&" &"!#r"$ nt: Bn*&r'r&(" d" 7or &r& Bn! &6 &t" Bn7& ( &5 "F6r" &&(" 7"r #(" #(" " o+&&(or5 !"(" #& (t" d&n Bntr" '# &r 'r&(" ! !#r" Bn o+& #!t&7&t#t"# 6r#!t&!' d&n &"!#r" 0&5 6r"!

#(t"(" d" #!"(#*& "(. C &#r d#!' % nd&r"# " t"? !r& '$ #d&!' 6 ' Bn t#r"# & !o n&!#t' (# to#t' ( "#$ ! &#r #*# "# n r 'r"*t" totd"# n# ' d"#o ! no*t&n+' *t&&n+& &!'. E# 6o#t" & #t n!& n #& n & (o! d" #" o+&#$ # d" # d& 6 n" 7o&n+#. P n'o#r'$ ! nd !"t& r 'to#r"(" 7"r r&d&n E &n r ! : >-T r0&" to# n' " #! $ " ! t r r n0"(" 6" dr *& (#n r&(" nt 6 t&&... D" !" n - & 7&&$ d" !" n - &

1

7&&Q ?$ -) n& 'n & n -& tr"!" 6r&n &nt"$ !' &nt"n+&# ( & E &n" ! # d"# #!& o ! no*t&n+' d" 6r" to# n' *& d" ("%'t r# !#r" #r 6 t"# & Bntr"to# n' *& 7"n&r"# n"& 6"r o#n" #*t"6t#t". E &n" ! n r 'r"*t" 6r&n#!" t" 7"r r&$ d"! t ' tr"0"# !' Bn no& " o+&# d" !#r" "r# "( t'6 n&t#*t"6t nd o 6"r o#n' & &t'. Tot #*# Bn r o# "(" ! 7&nt" #(" E7#n% "(&!r"*t&n": I "*t" 6" #6ro#6"(" t' $ !# 6" t&n" Bn +&?$)n& "n& n 7"d"o ! no*t&n+' *t&&n+& &!' d" 6r" o# "n&$ !& n Bnd" n d#t o# "n&(or

#6t" n". In r nd ( #!" tor % nd&r& nt o (+& " #(t"(" 6" !#r" (" %' & 6r&n !'r+&(" d" (&t"r#t r' *& or#('.

D&n #6t ( !' % nd&r&("$ "n "r#t" 6 n' #!&$ n n" d# o ! no*t&n+*t&&n+& &!'$ n r "#0' Bn ' !' "(" Bn %"n"r" nt tr'&n" d" or&*&! no*t&n+'. E(" to#t" nt "F6r& 'r& d" ! no*t&n+"$ d#r n d" #d"7'r r&*t&&n+& &!". Ad"7'r r&(" *t&&n+& &!" !on t&t " ! o 6#rt" d&n to



@J C. R. MOTRT : LECŢII DE LOGICĂ

! no*t&n+"(or o "n"*t&. Tot !" &ntr' Bn ( &n# &n+&& " t" 6r&n #!"# t# ! no*t&n+'. In #!t ( !"( #& & 6( d" & +&r" *& d" 7o&n+' " r' r n%! no*t&n+'. C &#r Bn 7& #7" ! no*t&n+' d" !"7#. D#r #d"7'r ( *t&&n+&" t" d& "r&t d" #!" t"#. E( d& "r' d" #!" t"#$ n #t t 6r&n #!""# !' " t" #&!o 6("t # #& #d n!$ ! t 6r&n #!""# !' " 6o#t" !ontro(# d 6' #n &t"r"% (& # "tod"$ !#r" n d"6&nd Bntr n& &! d" &"!t&7&t#t"# #!"!#r" B( "F6r& ' *& #6o& "( " 6o#t" tr#n &t"$ ! #!"(#*& Bn+"(" $ d"(# oo .

!) Benno Erdmann, Logilc (1892), I, p. 1—2.

« Nu orişice gândire es e şi ş iin ". #$irm"ri asupra %ucruri%or $ace şi gândireaneş iin i$ic", c"reia o&iec e%e 'i sun da e prin percep iunea sim uri%or şi prin o&ser a iain ern", dup" cursu% e perien ei *i%nice. +e aceas " &a*" se produc a â repre*en "riindi idua%e câ şi repre*en "ri genera%e amândou" %a 'ncepu numai din percep iasim uri%or şi din conş iin a de sine, cu a-u oru%, 'n urm", şi a% radi iunei cu in e%or 'mpreun" apoi prin $enomene su$%e eş i r"mase inconş ien e şi de regu%" $"r" nicio 'ncercare de a asigura o -udeca " a%a&i%" aces or o&iec e repre*en a e. rdinea aces oro&iec e se $ace dup" 'nsuşiri%e şi rapor uri%e %or mai i*&i oare şi anume/ par e, dup"cum aces ea se impun percep iunii sim uri%or şi o&ser a iei noas re in erne prin "ria şirepe i ia %or, par e dup" cum e%e ne surprind a en iunea prin impor an a ce au, $iepen ru p%"cerea şi durerea noas r" $ie pen ru eama şi n"de-dea noas r" $ie pen ruac i i a ea şi %iniş ea noas r". #şa c" precum o&iec e%e, aşa şi ordinea aces ora, es e unprodus inconş ien şi $"r" nicio 'ndrep " ire de a%oare o&iec i ". 0u o u% a% $e%gândirea ş iin i$ic", sau gândirea 'n 'n e%es s ric . #ceas a 'm&r" işea*" o&iec e%e, pecari repre*en "ri%e indi idua%e şi genera%e a%e sim uri%or şi a%e o&ser a iei in erne, %e au$orma , su& conducerea a en iunii, 'n scopu% de a do&ândi -udec" i cu a%oareuni ersa%". +rin urmare, nu pe aceea ce is&eş e şi se impune $"r" oie sim uri%or, sau peaceea ce se g"seş e 'n radi ia cu in e%or, 'şi cons i ue gândirea ş iin i$ic" ordinea o&iec

e%or sa%e, ci prin aceea ce re*u% " din r o ana%i*" conş ien ", ca da e proprii saucomune. 0u a% e cu in e, ordinea se cons i ue dup" 'nsuşiri%e o&iec u%ui, iar nu dup"

re&uin e%e su&iec u%ui percep" or. 3ândirea ş iin i$ic", sau ş iin a, es e, dup" scopu%

s"u, o -udecare de a%oare uni ersa%" 4.s) #%ois 5ie6%, Logik u. Erkenntnistheorie (7inne&erg, Die Kultar der Gegen- wart,eii I, #& . I) p.

« :orma ş iin ei es e şi ea o&iec u% unei ş iin e şi aceas a, ;ogica, es e una şiaceeaşi oricâ de deose&i e, dup" 'nsuşiri%e %or, ar $i ma erii%e ş iin ei4. <. <und ,

Logik (19=>), I, p. 1—>. « ;a mi-%oc, 'n re direc iuni%e uni%a era%e, s " direc iunea;ogicei, care 'şi pune ca scop cerce area e o%u iunii şi me ode%or cunoş in e%orş iin i$ice 4.



sL E C Ţ I A I(-#

3. LOGICA$ TEORIA CUNOŞTINŢEI ŞI META=I ICA. ) Lo%&!#B*& #t&n%" !o6 ($ d#!' r" *"*t" ' n" Bn7"d"r"0" 6r&n!&6&&(" 6" !#r" Bnt" "&#0' !"rt&t d&n"# *t&&n+& &!'. E# n d"6'*"*t" or%#n&0#r"# *t&&nd&n #!"# t' !# 0' n 6 n" Bn d& ! +& n" 6ro (" # *t&&n+"& Bn '*&. Bntd" "( ( !"(or r 'to#r": C !" dr"6t # &r ' $ !' (# #d"7'r r&(" *t&&n+"&$ #r

& !or" 6 n0 nd$ d&n!o(o d" d#t"(" & + r&(or no# tr"$ o ( " r"#(' *tr#n !"nd"nt' ! !" dr"6t o!ot& #6o&$ !' #d"7'r ( *& r"#(&t#t"# #r &!on nd nd ) nt Bntr" 'r& !#r" d"6'*" ! "r# Lo%&!"& 6ro6r& 0& "Lo%&!# !# *t&&n+' 6"!&#('$ " 'r%&n"*t" (# !"r!"t#r"# !"rt&t d&n"& d#t"*t&&n+"&$ 'r' ' d& ! t" d#!' &nt"# no# tr' " t" # n Bn t#r" ! no# !' r"#(&t#t"# #!" tor d#t"$ # d#!' Bntr" #!"# t' r"#(&t#t" *& *t&&n+" t"$ # n $ o #d"!7#+&" "F#!t'.

Tot *& # " "n"# Bntr" 'r& d" 6r" ( "# r"#(' *& tr#n !"nd"nt' n nttr'&n" Lo%&!"&$ d#r "(" or "#0' o *t&&n+' 6"!&#('$ !#r" Bn od #! (t#t

o 6 t" #d'o%# !# o 6#rt" 6(& "nt#r' Lo%&!"& *& !#r" " n "*t" T"or&#C no*t&n+"&$ # d 6' n&& M"t# &0&!#1<.

4. ,SI OLOGIA ŞI LOGICA. ) To#t" o6"r#+& n&(" #r% "nt'r&&*t&&n+& &!"$ 6" !#r" (" t d&" Bn Lo%&!'$ nt Bn #!"(#*& t& 6 *& o6&nt#("$ 6r&n r #r" nt #6t" ("t"*t&. EF& t' Bn ' o *t&&n+' 6"!&

!#r" #r" d" o &"!t t d&"r"# #6t"(or ("t"*t&$ #n " *t&&n+# , & o(o%nt d#r do ' *t&&n+"$ Lo%&!# *& , & o(o%&#$ ! #!"(#*& o &"!t



INTRODUCERE @9

In 6r&n!&6& $ #!"(#*& #6t #( n#t r&& 6o#t" & t d&#t d" do ' *d"o " &t"$ Bntr ! t t d& ( #!" tor *t&&n+" " #!" d&n 6 n!t" 7"d"r"d"o " &t". A*#$ Bn !#0 ( d" #+'. Lo%&!#$ Bnto! #& !# *& , & o(o

t d&#0' o6"r#+& n&(" !#r& " 6"tr"! Bn &nt"# o "n"# !'$ d#r d&ntr 6 n!t d" 7"d"r" d"o " &t. , & o(o%&# t d&#0' o6"r#+& n&(" &nt#("$ 6" (" Bnt (n& Bn #r% "nt#r"$ !# &&nd #6t" n#t r#("$ *& !# t' ' (" "F6(&! "(" " 6rod ! !# #6t" n"!" #r" Bntr n or%#n& &nd&7&d #($ 6" ! nLo%&!# t d&#0' #!"("#*& o6"r#+& n& Bn !o6 ( d" # 7"d"# Bntr ! t "(" n"!" #r" (# 6ro #r"# #d"7'r ( &. ,"ntr , & o(o%&" n "F& t' o6"r#+& n"

&nt#(' H t'Q *& o6"r#+& n" &nt#('"ron#t'Q, !& "F& t' n #&o6"r#+& n" &nt#(' n#t r#('$ &&nd!' , & o(o%&# n " 6r"o! 6' d"!"rt&t d&n"# *t&&n+"&$ !& d" 7&#+# ("t"# !' # &nd&7&d ( &$ 6"o6"r#+& n"# "ron#t' " t" tot #*# d" n"!" #r' *& d" "F6(&!# &(' !# *&o6"r#+& n"# t'. In or&!" !#0$ d#!' , & o(o%&# n "*t" o o6"r#+& n" *& 6" #(t# "ron#t'$ #!"# t' !#(& &!#r" o #!" ! 6r&7&r" (# &nt"r"or%#n& ( & Bn(' ntr ( !'r &# # (o! o6"r#+& n&(" #!" t"#$ d#r n 6r&7&r" (# t# &(&r"# #d"7'r r&(or n"!" #r" 6"ntr or&*&!" &nt" o "n"#A " "n"# !#(& &!#r" &ntr' Bn #tr& +& n&(" Lo%&!"&. D" #!""# # 0, & o(o%&# " t" o *t&&n+' n#t r#('$ 6" ! nd Lo%&!# 2Bnto! #& !# *& Et&E t"t&!#< " t" o *t&&n+' nor #t&7'@<.

C to#t" #!" t"#$ ! no*t&n+"(" d" , & o(o%&" nt o#rt" t&(" !"( & !#t d&#0' Lo%&!'. E t" n !#6&to( #( Lo%&!"& *& #n " #!"(# #( or&%&n"&

"7o( +&"& #r% "nt'r&& *t&&n+& &!"$ Bn !#r" ! no*t&n+"(" d" , & o(o! &#r &nd& 6"n # &(". In #!" t !#6&to( !"r!"t#r"# (o%&!' "r%" #('t r& n"d" 6'r+&t d" !"r!"t#r"# 6 & o(o%&!'. L# or&%&n"$ #d"7'r ( " #t" B(#n+ r&(" &"!t&7&t'+&& *& t' Bn do "n& ( , & o(o%&"& 5 ) 7&# 6r# &"!t&7&t'+&& n #& d&n , & o(o%&" o 6 t" Bn+"("%".



DI I IUNEA LOGICEI. ) Tr#d&+&on#(# d&7&0& n" # Lo%&!"& " t"d&7&0& n"# Bn Lo%&!# or #('$ # "(" "nt#r' *& M"todo(o%&#. In Lo%

or #(' nt t d&#t" no+& n&(" *& o6"r#+& n&(" (o%&!" & 6("$ 6" Bnt (n& Bn to#t" *t&&n+"(": # tr#!+&#$ !(# & &!#r"#$ d" &n&+&#r#+&on# "nt ($ #n#(&0# *& &nt"0#$ "t!. ! n ! 7 nt "(" "nt"("$ !#r" Bnt (n" ! Bn or&*&!" #r% "nt#r" *t&&n+& &!'. In M"todo(o%&" nt o6"r#+& n&(" (o%&!" !o 6("F"$ d" !#r" #r" n"7o&" &"!#r" *t&&n+' 6otr&o &"!t ( & ' 6"!&#(3<.A!"# t' d&7&0& n"$ #!r"d&t#t' d" o#rt" (t" !'r+&d" Lo%&!'$ Bntr" !#r" (# no& Bn +#r' Bn 6r& ( r nd d" Lo%&!# ( & TM#&or" ! $ 6r" 6 n" !' Bn & t" #t&0#r"# #d"7'r r&(or *t&&n+& &!" "F 6#rt" or #(' d" o6"r#+&& (o%&!"$ !#r" t' (# #0# t t ror !"(or(#(t" "tod"*t&&n+& &!"$ &nd& "r"nt d" o &"!t ( (# !#r" #!" t" "tod" " #6(&!'# " "n"# 6r" 6 n"r" " t" o #nt&!&6#+&" n"do7"d&t'. S&n% r# "( t& &

t' Bn tr#d&+&# &(o o &"& #r& tot"(&!"$ d 6' !#r" or # " t" nd#t#n+&#( #( t t ror ! no*t&n+"(or. D" o6"r#+&& or #("$ !o n" t t

*t&&n+"(or$ n " 6o#t" Bn ' 7or &. A!""# !" tr"!" dr"6t o6"r#+&" or #(' BnM#t" #t&!'$ n 6o#t" tr"!" 'r' d"o " &r" *& Bn *t&&n+"(" !"("(#(t". In*t&&n+"(" 6 & o(o%&!" *& o!&#("$ d" &n&+&#$ !(# & &!#r"#$ #n#(

nt B 6r" n#t" ! 6ro (" " !#r" n "F& t' 6"ntr M#t" #t&!' *& 6"ntr*t&&n+"(" &0&!o-" & &!". A tr#!+&# *& d"t"r &n'r&(" "& Bntr n d" '* r' Bn *t&&n+"(" n#t r#(" *& Bn #(t od Bn *t&&n+"(" 6 & o(o%

o!&#(". N "F& t' o6"r#+&" (o%&!' or #('$ !#r" ' 6o#t' & "6#r#t' d"Bntr"% ( !o 6("F #( "tod"(or t&(&0#t" Bn &"!#r" *t&&n+'- =&(o oA % t" Co t" o "r7'$ 6" n' dr"6t#t"$ !' !"r!"t'r&(" Lo%&!"& tr" &"

' r' n' tr n ("%#t" d" d" 7o(t#r"# &"!'r"& *t&&n+". A!""# !" " t""(" "nt#r *& or #( Bntr n do "n& d" #d"7'r r& *t&&n+& &!"$ d& 6otr&7' Bn!'r!#t d" d#t" 6ro (" #t&!" *& !"r" r#+&on# "nt" !o 6(&!#t"&ntr n #(t do "n& . T&6 ( d" 6"!&" #n& #('$ n'o#r'$ " t" d"Bntr" &n+#r" ! r"nt' Bn oo(o%&"$ d#r n tot # t "( " t"$ Bn *t&&n+"(" ot&6 ( d" ! (t r'. D" #!""# " t" #& !on or r"% (&(or d" o &"!t&7&t#t"*t&&n+& &!'$ ' n #nt&!&6' # 6r# n#t r&& "tod"(or *t&&n+& &!"$ B(" Bn or #(" *& n" or #(". =or #( ( Bn Lo%&!' " t" n r" t d" tr#d&+&

"t# &0&!'5 "6#r#r"# ( & n # t' Bntr n& &! (# o #& *o#r' Bn+"("%o6"r#+&&(or (o%&!"5 d& 6otr&7'$ Bn%r" n"#0'. M#n #("(" d" Lo%&!'$ Bn&( tr#r"# d& "r&t"(or o6"r#+&& or #(" (o%&!" " #!" 6r&n "F"B 6r t#t" (# Bnt 6(#r"$ d&n M#t" #t&!'$ d&n Şt&&n+"(" n#t r#(" # d, & o(o%&"$ n r&d&!' &nt"r" ( 6"ntr t d& ( Lo%&!"&$ !& #& !



#n#(&0"#0'. A " "n"# #n #(" #! d&n Lo%&!' n t d& ort@<.In !on "!&n+'$ d&7&0& n"# !"# #& 6otr&7&t' 6"ntr t d& ( Lo%&!

" 6#r" # & !"# r 'to#r":

@ Nume%e de ?e a$i*ic" ine de%a $ap u% c" scrieri%e %ui #ris o e%es care se ocupaude pro&%ema rea%i " ii, erau aşe*a e dup" ace%ea de :i*ic". Nume%e de ;ogic" es e.depro enien " %a in", e% ine pro&a&i% de%a $i%oso$ii s oici. +ran %,Geschichte der Logik im

A endlande, I, p. @A@.! erweg, "#stem der Logik (18>8), p. 2>.a) <. <und , Logik, I$p. 1 şi urm.3) Benno Erdmann, Logik (1892), I, p. A1. « omeniu% ;ogicei se 'mpar e 'n dou"

p"r i 'n r una se cuprind pos u%a e%e şi e%emen e%e $orma%e a%e gândirii, ş' 'n cea de adoua se cuprind e%emen e%e $orma%e de un a% doi%ea grad, adic" me ode%e comune

u uror ş iin e%or 4.#ug. 0om e,$ours de %hiloso%hie %ositi&e (18>2), I, p. AA—A9. « ?e oda nu es e

suscep i&i%" de a $i s udia " separa de cerce area 'n care ea es e ap%ica ", c"ci a% $e% eanu es e decâ un s udiu mor , incapa&i% s" $econde*e spiri u%4.



I. Logica genetică. In #!"# t' 6#rt" &ntr' t d& ( or&%&n"& o6"r#+&&(or(o%&!". 1etodologia. In #!"# t' 6#rt" t d&" o6"r#+&&(" (o%&!"$ d"(# !"("

#& & 6("$ 6 n' (# !"(" #& !o 6(&!#t". o Bn!"6" ! o6"r#+&&(" 6" !#r"(" Bn+"("%" Bntr" &n+#r"# (& # ( &$ 6"ntr # # n%" 6" r n

"tod"(" *t&&n+"(or 6"!&#(".



+#5 E# I

Beoria 4unoştinţei. In #!"# t' 6#rt" " #r#t' d& "r&t"(" 6ro (" " 6r&7&to#r"

(# 7#(# &(&t#t"# "tod"(or *t&&n+& &!" *& (# n#t r# !"rt&t d&n"&.LOGICA

GENETICĂ

L E C Ţ I A I(I-#



34C. R. MOTRU: LECŢII DE LOGICĂ

MENTALITATEA OMULUI ,RIMITI . ) Con*t&&n+# "tod"(or o &"!t&7"$ ! !#r" Bn o+& # t'0& or&*&!" #r% "nt#r" *t&&n+& &n"! no ! t' o ( & 6r& &t&7. E# " t" Bn n' 6#rt" n"! no ! t' 6 n' *&# t'0& # or&t'+&& o# "n&(or. In (o! ( "tod"(or *t&&n+& &!"$ !#r& # t'0& #!t&7&t#t"# no# tr' 6r#!t&!'$ o# "n&& 6r& &t&7& #7"# 6"r t!""# !" no& n & (o%&!$ 6#r" ' & o t n"! no ! t #!" tor 6r& &t&7&

#& "7&d"nt" "ror&$ 6" !#r& n&!& n !o6&( d&n !(# "(" 6r& #r" n ("-##!" # t'0&$ "r# 6"ntr "& !r"d&n+" Bnr'd'!&n#t". A*# n'o#r': n& "n&

d&ntr" no&$ n d' o %r& ' d"o " &t' r"& #(". N& "n& n B*& #n "(" d" r&!# n & 6&r&t r' . N& "n& n #r" r&!' d" o#rt# 6" !#r#7"#-o 6ortr"t ( ' Bn n# n & tr'&n. N& "n& n #r !on nd# ! &d&n o%(&nd' ! r"#(&t#t"#. N& "n& n #r ( # #6#r&+&&(" d&n 7& dr""F& t"nt" Bn n#t r'$ "t!... To#t" #!" t"# nt 6"ntr or&*&!&n" d&ntr" n( !r r& "( !&d#t". No& *t& !' r# n 6o#t" tr#n &t" n&!& n r' #!or6 ( & !#r" o 6ro&"!t"#0'$ or&! t #r & "# d" Bn &6t' ! ! +&t (5 !' nd#!' " t" +&n t # ! n $ n #d !" o * r#r" d" o#(' !"( & !"-1 6o#rt'5 !'

tr'6 n%"r"# n & 6ortr"t n #d !" o#rt"# !"( & d 6' !#r" # o t '! t 6ortr"t (5 !' 7& #r"# n & ort n " t" o do7#d' d" "F& t"n+# #!" t & 6r&ntr" no&$ "t!. D#r 6r& &t&7&&$ ) *& '( #t"!&& d" # t'0&$ ) !r"d td& 6otr&7' 27"0& n "ro# " "F" 6(" Bn to#t" !'r+&(" Bn !#r" nt #d n#

6"r t&+&&(" 6o6o#r"(or 6r& &t&7"<<1<.C # o t ! 6 t&n+' or #r"##!" tor 6"r t&+&& A r' 6 nd" !' #!" t" 6"r t&+&& # 6roBnt 6(#r"$ d 6' "F6"r&"n+# r' !ontro(#t' # 6r& &t&7 ( &$ n " t" # n . D#!' #!" t" 6"r t&+&& #r & 6rod (# Bnt 6(#r"$"F6"r&"n+# r' !ontro(#t' # &"!'r & 6r& &t&7$ #t n!& #r r # !' #!"

6"r t&+&& ' or "0" o # &(on&"5 Bn !#r" ' n %' & n&!&o or&"to#t" #!" t"# n t# ( !r r&(" #*#. S 6"r t&+&&(" 6r& &t&7&(or " Bn #& 6" t" 7"#! r&$ d#r *& 6" t" !ont&n"nt" Bntr"%&. ,r&n r #r"$ "(

# 6rod (# Bnt 6(#r" d 6' "F6"r&"n+# &"!'r & &nd&7&d Bn 6#d 6' 6 & o(o%&# 6"!&#(' # "nt#(&t'+&& o ( & 6r& &t&7$ ) 6 &!o n' t t ror !#6"t"(or 6r& &t&7".

D#!' "F# &n' d" #6ro#6" o6"r#+& n&(" &nt#(" #(" 6r& &t&7 ( & 2 6rod "(" (or$ #d&!'$ "F# &n nd 6"r t&+&&("< Con t#t' Bn "(" #d"(# Lo%&!# no# tr' Bn!' *& #& & 6ort#nt"$ d"! t !"(" #r't#t" #& , n' #!& # o t &0 &+& d" # " t"! ( 6" !#r" B( #!" 6r& &t&7 ( r"#(&t#t" *& #6#r"n+'$ Bntr" ( !r *& & o($ ) "F" 6("(" r 'to#r" n"#r#t' o &nt"r6r"t#r" 6"!&#(' # d"6"nd"n+&& d&ntr" !# 0' *& " "!t$ #d&!(o%&!' d 6' !#r" " "F6(&!'$ Bn &nt"# 6r& &t&7 ( &$ Bn('n+ &r"# #6




n#t r'$ ) !#r" " t" n #& 6 +&n d"o " &t' d" # no# tr'.,r& &t&7 ( !r"d"$ !' o !#t' d" &"r 6 rt#t' (# n$ #d !" !"( & !" o 6o#rt'o 6 t"r" # " 'n'to#r" &"r ( &. Tot #*#$ !' n o &"!t !#r" # #6#r+&n t n" 6"r o#n" 6' tr"#0' o ("%'t r' & t&!' ! #!"# t' 6"r o#n'$ #*# !' 6r&n

& (o!&r"# o &"!t ( & 6o+& 6ro "t&0#$ # #t&n%" o#rt# o 6ro6r&"t#r. O !#t' d&n !or6 ( n & d * #n$ Bn !r"d&n+"(" !#n& #(&" t" B 6r" n#t' totd"# n# ! #n &t" or+" & t"r&o# "$ !#r" " 6otr#n &t" # 6r# !"( & !#r" o 'n n!'. C# 0# n"& n"noro!&r&$ ! #r

o#rt"#$ (&6 # d" 6(o#&"$ ! tr" r ($ "t!. " t" #r n!#t' d" 6r& &t&7 "# # !"(or #& &no "n &7" "7"n& "nt"$ !# #r't#r"# n"& 6# "r&$ 6on"& #&n" n"o &*n &t"$ # #!"r"# n & %" t. A6o& &d"nt& &!'r&

(" o6"r"#0' &nt"# o ( & 6r& &t&7 nt d&ntr" !"(" #& ! r&o# ". ," (!' %' & &d"nt& &!#t" #n& #("(" ! 6(#nt"(" *& "no "n"(" "t"oro(o%&d#r B& %' & 6" "& Bn*&*&$ 6" 6r& &t&7&$ Bntr ! t nt " r& #&

# #& n & %r 6 "tn&!$ &d"nt& &!#+& ! #n &t" #n& #(" >tot" & & &?<. D&n #!" t" &d"nt& &!'r& r"0 (t' d"6"nd"n+" !#An& #( ( &d"nt&- &!#t 2tot" (< ! o ( d' #!" t &# #n &t" Bn *&& 6 n" #n &t" Bnd#tor&r&. Int"r0&!"r"# d" # 7 n# #n &t" #n& #(" *&

n!# #n &t' !#rn" d" #n& #( 7&n" d" 6" r # #!" tor &d"nt& &!'r&$ "tEF" 6(" !# #!" t"# " 6ot Bn (+& d 6' 7o&". 2 "0&$ Bn #!"# t' 6r&7&

!r&"r"# ( & L. L"7 -Pr&&(&($ !&t#t' #& o <.

5. RE,RE ENTAREA COLECTI Ă. ) A! ' 7"n& (# "F6(&-!#r"# #!" tor d"o " &r& d&ntr" (o%&!# &n+&& 6r& &t&7 ( & *& (ono# tr". Do ' !on t#t'r& n" Bn(" n" ! #!"# t' "F6(&!#r". ,r& # " t"

r 'to#r"#:O ( 6r& &t&7 #r" !("(# ( "# Bn!on r'to#r" o r"6r"0"nt#r"

!o("!t&7'$ Bn !#r" o &"!t"(" n " d& "r"n+&#0'$ !# Bn &nt &+& n"#

! (t$ !& Bn !#r" to#t" & 6r" & n&(" d"(# o &"!t"(" "Ft"rn" " !onto6"Bntr n (o! tot#(. R"6r"0"nt#r"# !o("!t&7' " t" 6rod ( n"& # o!&"r 6# &7" # & 6r" & n&(or 7"n&t" 6r&n & + r&$ o#rt" # " 'n'to#r" #t&& 6 " d" &n t&n!t. In o # " "n"# r"6r"0"nt#r" " !onto6" ! n n #&& 6r" & n&(" 6r& &t" 6r&n & + r& !& *& r"#!+& n&(" " o+&on#(" to#t" n tot !on!r"t.

R"6r"0"nt#r"# d&n &nt"# 6r& &t&7 ( & #& " t" !o("!t&7' Bn "n"# " t" o r"6r"0"nt#r" !o n' t t ror #!"(or !#r" !o 6 n %r 6 ( o!&#(.R"6r"0"nt#r"# !o("!t&7' n " t" d#r$ 6ro6r& 0& $ o r"6r"0"nt#r"

&nt"("!t #('$ #*# ! " Bn+"("%" Bn Lo%&!# no# tr'$ !& " t" o r"#!+&




&nt"%r#(' # ("t ( &$ n "( d" #t&t d&n" 6# &7' & 6 ' &n+&&$# #& 0& $ o #t&t d&n" # " 'n#t' ! #!"# d#t' d" &n t&n!t. In o # " "n"r"6r"0"nt#r" n " #!" d"o " &r" Bntr" r"#(&t#t" *& #6#r"n+'$ Bntr" (& 6ort#nt *& ( !r "! nd#r5 #!& tot ($ Bntr ! t " t" d#t &nt &t&7$ " t& 6ort#nt. A!"# t' r"6r"0"nt#r"$ ! n ! 7 nt$ " t" (& "r' d" or&*&!"d& "r"n+&"r& r#+&on#("$ "# " t" 6rod ( &nt"t&! #( &nt &+& n"& n



L. L"7 -Pr ($ !#r" Bn !r&"r"# # Les fondions mentales dans *es sodetesinferieures 2,#r& $ =. A("#n$ 191 < # t d&#t d" #6ro#6" r"6r"0"nt#r"#!o("!t&7'$ o d" !r&" # t "(: L# o ( 6r& &t&7 #!t&7&t#t"# &nt#(' " t" 6r 6 +&n d& "r"n+&#t'$ !# Bn r"6r"0"nt#r"# ( & ' " 6o#t' d& t&n%" &d"&& #%&n&(" o &"!t"(or$ d" "nt& "nt"("$ " o+&&("$ # 6# & n&(" !#r&

# nt "7o!#t" d" #!" t" &d"& *& & #%&n&. R"6r"0"nt'r&(" ( & nt !o 6("F"$ Bn !#r" "(" "nt"("" o+&on#(" *& otor&& nt 6'r+& &nt"%r#nt#(" r"6r"0"nt'r&(or 6ro6r& 0& ". A t "( &nt"# 6r& &t&7' n 6"r!"6"o &"!t ( "Ft"rn or # n"& &d"& # n"& & #%&n&$ !& "# B( &

!#0 r&$ Bn7'( &t Bn r&!'$ 6"r#n+' *& & t"r$ !# 6" o 6 t"r" 6rot"!to#r" d * 'no# ' 26. @ -)@9<.D&n !on t#t#r"# #!" tor r"6r"0"nt'r& !o("!t&7" Bn+"("%" o 6#rt" d&n

!& d'+"n&&(" 6"r t&+&&(or !&t#t" *& #n " Bn+"("%" 6"ntr !" n 6"ntr 6r& &t&7 d& t&n!+& n"# Bntr" r"#( *& #6#r"nt$ Bntr" & 6ort#

"! nd#r$ #*# ! "F& t' 6"ntr (o%&!# no# tr'.



8. F< &( "( ndt$ Elemente der !olker%s#chdlogie 2191@<5 A. L"7 -Pr ($ Les 'onciions meniales dans (es sociele% in)erieures 2191 <.CREDINŢA IN DEMONIŞI RĂ ITORIE. ) O # do # !on t#t#r"$ d" #!"(#*& # tor 6"ntr"F6(&!#r"# !" !' t' $ " t" #6t V !' to+& o# "n&& 6r& &t&7& B*& !o 6(&nt &+& n"# "Ft"rn' 6r&n !r"d&n+# (or Bn d" on& *& Bn 7r' &tor&". Tot

&*!' Bn r ( (or$ ! &#r *& tot !" 'r' ' " &*t"$ & 6r" &on"#0' & + r" t" Bn ("%'t r' ! 6 t"r"# n & d" on 2Bn !#r" d" on Bn+"("%" tot "( (d" &&n+" "Ftr#-n#t r#(" Bn! &6 &t" d" 6r& &t&7<. In 6'd r"# Bnt n"!o#r ( !#r" ! r%"5 Bn 7 nt ( !#r" #t"5 Bn no r&& !#r" tr"! 6" !"r5 Bn !# # 6 t&"5 6" dr ( 6'r' &t5 Bn r# &"!'r & o *& &"!'r"& &&n+"$ "t!Bn tot *& Bn to#t" " t" n 6&r&t # n d" on$ )-d" !#r" n 6o+& !'6#$ n1 6o+& B ( n0& # Bnd"6'rt#$ d"! t 6r&n 7r' &tor&". Bntr"#%# ( "r" ("!t"#0' # t "( Bn &nt"# 6r& &t&7 ( & 6r&n 6r& # #n& & ( &. t&7 ( n 6o#t" !on!"6" o ( " &nd& "r"nt' ( &. Tot !" " 6"tr"!" Bn r ( '" t" 6orn&t ! &nt"n+&# d" #-& #!" ( &.r' # &n"5 ( " &nd& "r"o &"!t&7'$ 6"ntr d n ( n "F& t'. In !ontr# t t ror 6orn&r&(or #(tor# "( #r"Bn # tor #r "!"(" # 7r' &tor&#. O !#t' d" &"r$ # n # n#r 6 rt#t" Bn B( !#6' d" n"! r#t (5 o !'+&!' d" !o(o#r" ro*&"$ # ! &6#t ( d" tr"&or& B( #6'r' d" d"o! & $ "t!. "t!. ,ron n+#r"# nor #n &t" or (" #tr#%" 6&"&r"# 7r' #* ( &$ "t!.

9. D&n #!"# t' !# 0'$ '( #t&! ( n 6o#t" Bn+"("%" o(o &n+# t" n&!&&n tr "nt#(" (# o ( !&7&(&0#t. =&"!#r" &n tr "nt " t" 6"ntr "B Bn (D" #(t &ntr"(&$ 6 n' o#rt" t r0& $ &n tr "nt"(" # #7 t 6" "(" !ont r#t"

or " d" #n& #("1<.CARACTERI AREA MENTALITĂŢII,RIMITI ULUI. ,ASI ITATE. DIS,REŢUL EW,ERIENŢEI. ) D&n



#!" t" !on t#t'r& r"0 (t' !#r#!t"r&0#r"# "nt#(&t'+&& 6r& &t&7". M"nt#(&t#to ( & 6r& &t&7$ Bn d"o " &r" d" #!""# # o ( & ! (t d" # t'0&$ " t" 6##d&!' "# n #n#(&0"#0' *& n ! & ' r#6ort r&(" d&ntr" o &"!t"("&nt &+& n"& "Ft"rn"$ d 6' n &nt"r" (o%&! o#r"!#r"$ !& 6r& "*t" to#t" !o "r' &nt &+& n"# "Ft"rn' Bntr o # o!&#+& n" 6# &7'. ,r& &t&7 ( nd"o " &r" Bntr" & 6ort#nt *& "! nd#r$ Bntr" r"#( *& #6#r"nt$ &&nd!'&nt &+& n"# ( & to#t" nt d#t" *& # o!&#t" (# n (o!. D&n !# 0# !r"d&n+Bn d" on&$ 6r& &t&7 ( n 6r"+ "*t" #6o& "F6"r&"n+#. No&$ o# "n&& d" 6r"+ & "F6"r&"n+#$ &&nd!' no& !r"d" $ !' od#t' !" !on t#t' #n &t"r#6ort r& Bn ord&n"# d" !!" & n" # #6t"(or d&n n#t r'$ #& #(" ! nd !on t#t' 6r&n &n tr "nt" d" ' r'to#r"$ #!" t"# r' n n& or " 6"ntr totd"# n#$ !'!& n& &! n " ! & ' d"! t d&ntr o !# 0' !#r" " t" *&"# Bn(' ntr ( #6t"(or o "r7#t"$ 6" ! nd 6r& &t&7 ($ &ntrod ! nd d" on&2 6&r&t"("$ d r&("$ "t!.< r&d&!' or&*&!" 6r" t&%& "F6"r&"n+"&. EF6 6o#t" '-( Bn7"+" n& &!$ &&nd!' "F6"r&"n+# ! 6r&nd" " "!t"(" 6 t"r&d" on&(or$ *& #!"# t' 6 t"r" r' n" Bn # #r'$ (& "r' ' " d" '* r" Bn od!#6r&!&o . Or&*&! t' "F6"r&"n+' #r #!" 6r& &t&7 ( ! 7r' &tor&# #5 or&d" #r #r't# #!"# t' 7r' &tor&" &n!&no# '$ "( n # n%" Bn ' (#!on7&n%"r"# !' " t" Bn %r"*#('$ &&nd!' or&*&!" n"r" *&t' # 7r' &tor&"& 6 ' 6" "# # &nt"r7"n+&"& n"& #(t" 7r' &tor&& '! t' d" n #(t d" on$ #*!' n&!&od#t' n " t" 6o & &(' 7"r& &!#r"#. O #(t' not' !#r#!t"r& t&!' " t"#6o& !' 6r& &t&7 ( d' #t"n+& n" n #& ( !r r&(or *& #6t"(or "Ftr#ord&n#" t" &nd& "r"nt (# ( !r r&(" *& #6t"(" !#r" " 6"tr"! Bn r ( ( & Bn

n& or@<. In r*&t$ 6r& &t&7 ($ Bn !r"d&n+# !' 6r&n 7or " 6o#t" &n ( "n+"0" # 6t# ( !r r&(or$ " t" #d (# 6r#!t&!# &n!& n&&3<.



) r. 5ic6ard 6urnCa%d, Ethno-%s#chologische "tudieri an "udsee&olkern au /dem *ismarck-Archi%el u. den "alomo-(nseln (Bei6e$ @. + $ur angeC. +sDc6o%ogie), p.1==/ « In e%igen a %or (a s"%&a eci%or) 'n genera% poa e $i carac eri*a " ca pasi ", 'mpo ri irea con ra greu " i%or na urii es e o deauna mic". :iecare cau " s" seadap e*e na urii dup" cum poa e. 3reu " i%e ei sun 'ncon-ura e, dar nu ridica e. n$ap ipic, 'n aceas " pri in ", pe care % am "*u de o su " de ori, es e aces a/ dac" o%ad" arunca " es e 'n drum, s"%&a ecu% nu o d" %a o par e, ci o oco%eş e. o aşa, dac" 'np"dure a c"*u un ar&ore pes e drum, aces ar&ore nu es e ridica pen ru ca s" sedescurce drumu%, ci o deauna oco%i . F ar pu ea *ice c" %a dânsu% es e 'n $a oarepro er&u%/ «re&us se su&icere 4, iar nu «res si&i su&icere. F"%&a ecu% se acomodea*"

%ucruri%or, dar nu cau " s" şi %e aser easc" 4.s) <. <und , Primiti&e atur%hiloso%hie (In Kultur der Gegenwart on 7inne

&erg, eii I. #& ei%ung ), p. 1>—2G.

A) 0u câ omu% es e mai primi i şi cu o men a%i a e mai pasi ", minciuna es ecre*u ", 'ncepând cu ace% care o spune adic" minciuna es e 'n aces s adiu a%men a%i " ii o ar " de r"-i orie. 0ând r"-i oria nu mai es e cre*u ", a unci a emminciuna propriu *is". (0omp. 0. 3eorgiade,/riginile magice ale minciunii 0i gene1a

g2ndirii. #cademia 5omân". F udii şi 0erce "ri, HHHI ).

'I■



L E C Ţ I A -#

10. EW,LICAREA MENTALITĂŢII ,RIMITI ULUI. ) O "F-

6(&!#r" (+ &to#r" # "nt#(&t'+&& o ( & 6r& &t&7 n n"-#r 6 t"# d"! t Bn r # nor ! no*t&n+" 6r"!& " d" 6r" or&%&n"# &nt"(&%o "n"*t&$ #d&!' Bn r # nor ! no*t&n+" 6r"!& " d" 6r" ! # o6"r#tr"!"r"# d"(# r"#!+& n&(" &n t&n!t&7" (# r"#!+& n&(" #t"n+& n"& 7o(&nt"(&%"n+"5 #!" t" ! no*t&n+" Bn ' n" (&6 " ! # t'0& Bn n' 6#rt". T 6 t" #d &t"$ !# -o &6ot"0' o#rt" 7"ro & &('$ !' o ( 6r& &t&7 # #7 t !on*t&&n+' 6# &7' *& (&6 &t' d" n!+& n"# #t"n+& n"&$ d&nn"d& "r"n+&"r&& #(" !"r" r#(". Cr"&"r ( o ( & 6r& &t&7 "r# Bn!' n d" r" ("F" &n t&n!t&7"$ ordon#t 7&"+&& " ot&7" *& d&n #!"# t'

r"6r"0"nt'r&(" #(" &nt &t&7" "r# !o("!t&7"$ #d&!' r" "(" (# o d& "r"n+&d 6' r#6ort r& 7o&t". D& "r"n+&"r"# &nt &+& n"& !o("!t&7" # 7"n&t BB o%'+&r&& " or&"& 6r& &t&7 ( & ! (t&6(" # o!&#+& n&S'( #t"! ( *& # t'0& #r" o " or&" o#rt" n'$ d#r o " or&" 6# &7'. N #& d 6' n ( n% t#d& d" " or&" 6# &7'$ *&-# '! t #6#r&+

n!+& n"# #t"n+& n"& 7o( nt#r"$ !#r" # &ntrod Bntr" # o!&"r&(" 6#&nt &+& n"& *& # o!&"r& no& d 6' r#6ort r& 7o&t". D"od#t' " #t"n7o( nt#r' # 7"n&t *& # tr#!+& n"#. A6o& 6ro%r" ( # tr#!+& n&&

+&n t *& 6or&t 6r&n Bntr" &n+#r"# d&n !" Bn !" #& 6"r "!t' # (&

='r' d" 7o(t#r"# (& # ( &$ #d&!' 'r' Bn(o! &r"# &nt &+&&(or !o 6("t"*t& 6r&n & o( r& 7"r #("$ &nt"# o "n"# !' n #r & 6 t t #(# d" 7o(t#r"# # tr#!+&on#(' (# !#r" # # n1<$' 5 . @ # do # &6ot"0' n" d'"F6(&!#r"# !r"d&n+"(or Bn d" on& *& Bn 7r' &tor&". D 6' !" o ( 6r& &t# n (# o%#t' " or&" !on!r"t'$ tr#n0&+&# d"(# &n t&n!t (# n!+&r#+&on#(" n # o t '! t' r !$ !& 6r&n o ("nt' "7o( +& n" Bn !#r" # &nt"r!#(#t o! ( & #%&n#+&"&. A*# 6r"! !o6&( ( " o#!'$ #d&!' "F"

'r' n !o6 6r#!t&! d& 6o0&+& n&(" #(" "r"d&t#r"$



LOGICA GENETICĂ4@

tot # " "n"# o ( 6r& &t&7 &"*&nd d" t&r#n&# &n t&n!t ( & n

d"#dr"6t ( Bn o #!t&7&t#t" r#+&on#('$ !& tr"!" 6r&ntr n Bnd"( n% t#d&d& &#(' ! n!+& n&(" #(" &nt"("!t #("$ Bn !#r" t#d& "( #&& #%&n"#0' d"! t r#+&on"#0'. I #%&n#+&# o "n"# !' Bn #!" t t#d& $

t'6 n&r"# r&!"& d" n"! no ! t$ # or+&& *& # o#("&$ d !" (# !r"d!"(" #& # rd" Bn d" on& *& 7r' &tor&"E 5 . D& 6r"+ ( 6"ntr "F6"r&"n+'$ Bn

r*&t$ " "F6(&!' d&n 6r"do &n#r"# 7&"+&& # "!t&7" # 6r# &nt"("!t #(". D" #(t &ntr"(&$ d" Bnd#t' !" !r"d&n+"(" Bn d" on& *& 7r' &t

nt Bnt'r&t" 6r&n tr#d&+&"$ !#("# "F6"r&"n+"& " t" t'&#t'. C&n" !r"d!#6r&!& ( d" on&(or$ n #& #*t"#6t' n& &! d"(# "F6"r&"n+'.



L E C Ţ I A ( - #

11. Or&*&!" d"6r&nd"r" ("t"# !' t&nd" ' 6"r "7"r"0"$ ! &#r ! ndBn!"t"#0' !ond&+& n&(" !#r" &-# d#t n#*t"r". A t "( *& d"6r&nd"r&

"nt#(&t'+&& 6r& &t&7". In &nt"(&%"n+"(" ! (t" d&n 0&("(" no# tr" %' &(t" r' '*&+" d&n "( ( d* # % nd& #( 6r& &t&7 ( &. A!" t" 6"r "7"r'r&

d" do ' "( r&: 1< nt 6"r "7"r'r& !#r" 6r&7" ! ond ( nor d#t"$ 6" !#r"*t&&n+# n # # n Bn!' ' (" "F6(&!"$ ! n'o#r' Bn do "n& ( r"(&%&o

nt 6"r "7"r'r& or #("$ Bn do "n& ( nor d#t" "F6(&!#t" d" *t&&n+'$ d#r B!#r" " 6' tr"#0' tot *& !#r#!t"r ( "nt#(&t'+&& 6r& &t&7 ( &5 #*# n'o

#n#t& ( ! !#r" " # &r ' n"(" #d"7'r r& *t&&n+& &!" *& n"to("r#n+!#r" " !r&t&!' #(t"(". In 7&#+# 6o(&t&!' #& #(" $ 6"r "7"r'r&(" "nt#(&t'+& 6r& &t&7" nt "7&d"nt". Atr#!+& n"# 6" !#r" o "F"r!&t' "Ftr#ord&n#r ( " t*& # t'0& (# 6o6or ( d" o tot #*# d" #r" !# $*& (# 6r& &t&7. A6oBn!r"d"r"# Bn 6 t"r"# &n!& n"& " t" *& # t'0& d" t ( d" t#r"$ ! to#t" !' 6r#!t&!# 7r' &tor&"& # !'0 t$ "t!. E #n!&6#r"# d" "nt#(&t#t"# 6r& &t&7' *&-o d#tor"*t" o ($ Bn 6r& ( r nd$ "d !#+&"& #(" or#D" on&& *& 7r' &tor&&(" # !"d#t t"r"n ($ n #t t d&n !# 0# 6ro%r"*t&&n+& &!$ ! t d&n !# 0# r' 6 nd&r"&-!r"*t&n& ( &$ !#r" # #d !"t&! 6"r&or4<. 3 4MENTALITATEA CO,ILULUI. ) Intr" "nt#(&t#t"#!o6&( ( & *& "nt#(&t#t"# o ( & 6r& &t&7 %' & o#rt" (t" #n#(o#!""# !" # *& '! t 6" n&& t"or&t&!&"n& ' +&n' !' d" 7o(t#r"# &nt"(t #(' # &nd&7&d ( & " t" o r"!#6&t (#r" # d" 7o(t'r&& &nt"("!t #(" # 6"!o "n"*t&$ *& !' # t "( #r !on &r # ("%"# &o%"n"t&!' 2onto%"n&# " t

3 ) r. ?ori * 7oernes, atur- u. 3rgeschichte des 4enscheti (19=9), I, p. GA@ şiurm. Fc6ur *,3rgeschichte der Kultur, p. JG e c.

2) F ein 6a%, A riss der "%rachwissenscha)t, I 7. +au%, Princi%ieii der "%rachgeschichte, e c.

s) r. K. . +reuss, Die geistige Kultur der atur&dlker ( eu&ner, 191G), p. J.4 0. 5"du%escu ?o ru, "tudii )iloso)ice, oi. III. Puterea su)leteasc5. +ar ea I.



L E C Ţ I A ( - #

&(o%"n&" 6r" ! rt#t'< Bn do "n& ( #6t"(or ("t"*t& !# *& Bn r" t ( n#E t" Bn ' o r"0"r7' d" '! t$ Bn#&nt" d" # # " 'n# 6r"# (t 6" !o6&( ! 6r& &t&7 ( d" or&!" 7 r t'5 #n ": tr" &" ' +&n" "# # !' &n!o 6("t#d" 7o(t#r" or%#n&!' (&6 "*t" 6" !o6&( d" #n &t" !or"(#+& n& ("t"*t&!#r& (" #r" o ( #t r 6r& &t&7$ 6r" "F" 6( d" !or"(#+& n"# d&ntr"

n!+& n&(" "F #(" *& & #%&n#+&" *& !'$ d&n #!"# t' !# 0'$ n 6 t" #*t"6t' ' %' & (# !o6&( #!"("#*& 6rod " &nt"("!t #(" !# *& (# 6r& &t&!& !"( (t 7o %' & Bntr" "& # " 'n'r& or #(". Tot *&$ ! &#r ! #!"# t'r"0"r7'$ #n#(o%&&(" n nt #& 6 +&n &nt"r" #nt"5 "(" # or #t o &"!

nor !"r!"t'r& Bnt&n " d&n 6#rt"# "tno%r# &(or$ & tor&!&(or *& 6"d#%o%1<. N n" Bndo& !' "(" 7or or #$ Bn 7&&tor$ *& n o &"!t d" !"r!"t#r" 6"ntr(o%&!&"n& <. D&n 6 n!t ( d" 7"d"r" or #($ #d&!' Bntr ! t n +&n" "#d" !on+&n t ( # 6r# !'r &# " "F"r!&t' n!+& n&(" &nt"("!t #(" *&

'r%&n& (# tr !t r# 6 & o(o%&!' # #!" tor n!+& n&$ Bntr" "nt#(&t!o6&( ( & *& "nt#(&t#t"# o ( & 6r& &t&7 %' & o (+& " d" #n#(A*#$ Bntr" #(t"(":a 5 Bnto! #& !# *& 6r& &t&7 ($ !o6&( ( " t" (&6 &t d" #t"n+7o( nt#r'$ 6r&n & (o!&r"# !'r"&# &nt &+& n"# & + r&(or 6o#t" & 6r"d 6' r#6ort r& *t&&n+& &!". Co6&( ($ !# *& 6r& &t&7 ($ 6r& "*t" Bn (

& + r&(or$ 6" !#r& #6o& (" 6r"( !r"#0' d 6' ot&7" &"!t&7". I #%&n# o#!' (# !o6&( n ro( tot #*# d" #r" !# *& # 6r& &t&7A b 5 C# *& 6r& &t&7 ($!o6&( ( n *t&" ' 6ro6or+&on"0"



LOGICA GENETICĂ 48

#t"r&#( ( d#t d" & + r&. Un !o6&( d" " n"#0' *# n"& !# "$ . "F.$ d#!

B( &nt"r" "#0'$ Bn d& 6ro6or+&" ! 'r& "# "&$ Bnto! #& ! #!" 6r& &t&7 ( !#r" n " t" #tr# d"! t d" !'tr" "Ftr#ord&n#r5c 5 A6o& !o6&( ($Bnto! #& !# *& 6r& &t&7 ($ n % nd"*t" Bn ! 7&nt" # tr#!t"$ !& Bn &nt!on!r"t"5d 5 In r*&t$ #!""#*& t"nd&n+' d" # 6"r on& &!# *& d" # #n&( !r r&(" d" 6r&n 6r" r ( ' $ o6r"*t" d"!#t# o &"!t&7' (# !o6&( !# *& 6r& &t&7. S nt #*# d" & &to#r" #!" t" #n#(o%&&$ Bn! t d#!' n #r & r# 6r# !on+&n t ( & % nd&r&&$ ) 6r& &t&7 ( " % nd"*t" (# o#rt"#

# &(&"& #("$ (# %r& &(" #(" !# #!tor #( n & %r 6 o!&#( "t!.$ ( !r rn " t" +&n t ' " % nd"# !' *& 6r&n r #r" ' %' "# !' n r' 6 n !o6&( (

) d#!' n #r & r"0"r7# # 6r# !on+&n t ( & % nd&r&&$ #r 6 t"# 0&!" &n"$ !' 6r& &t&7 ( #r" "nt#(&t#t"# d" !o6&($ &#r !o6&( ( Bn!"6" !"nt#(&t#t"# d" 6r& &t&7 <.

!) E nogra$ii sun cei din âi cari au insis a asupra ana%ogii%or din re primi i şicopi%. up" ei, as "*i, o %arg" 'n re&uin are de aces e ana%ogii $ac pedagogii. In specia%,$oar e ades a $os or&a 'n pedagogie de asem"narea din re desemn ui copii%or şidesemnu% oameni%or primi i i.

2) 3ând ;ogica nu a mai $i ra a " ca o 'nşirare de a&s rac iuni 'mpie ri e, ci 'n $unc iune de ş iin a care e o%uia*", a unci aces e cerce "ri or $i 'n mares im" %a %ogicieni.



; E 0 L I # i% a

12. Erns ?eumann, !orlesungen 1ur Einluhrung in die e6%erimentelle P5dagogik und ihre %s#chologischen Grundl5gen (2 e #u$%age 1911), I, p. 11>/ « 'n reaga 'n e%egere şi pre%ucrare in ern" a e perien ei rece %a copii prin rei rep e. +eprima reap " domneş e sin e*a/ $iecare o&iec es e, 'n e%es ca un o şi es e denumides u% de sigur ca un o , pe când 'nsuşiri%e %ui par ia%e sun cunoscu e numai 'n r unmod de$ec uos. 0â eoda ", es e drep , sun o&ser a e, surprin*" or de &ine, şi câ e a

r"s" uri de de a%iu, sau 'nsuşiri, dar cu oa e aces ea o p" run*" oare o&ser areana%i ic" %ipseş e cu des" ârşire, aşa c" din pu ine%e r"s" uri, sau 'nsuşiri o&ser a e,se cons rueş e repede o imagine o a%" a o&iec u%ui, care 'n mare par e es e comp%e a "cu i%u*ii, numeroase personi$ic"ri şi 'nsu$%e iri. #ceas " reap " o pu em de aceea numi

reap a sin e*ei $an as ice. up" aceas a urmea*", de %a râs a de 8—9 ani 'n sus, operioad" de ana%i*"/ p"r i%e o&iec u%ui, 'nsuşiri%e şi rapor uri%e din re o&iec e sun mai&ine o&ser a e, e c. In prima perioad" copi%u% r"ieş e ca 'n r o %ume de &asm 4. +ag.119/ « In in ui iunea copi%u%ui e%emen e%e apercep i e co ârşesc ma eria%u% da dsim uri, dar aces e e%emen e sun $"r" p%an şi $"r" conducerea oin ei şi a en iunii4.+ag. 12A/ « 3ândirea noas r" a&s rac " es e mai mu% o gândire 'n cu in e, a%" uri decare con inu u% in ui i aproape c" nu se mai &ag" 'n seam", pe când %a copi%dimpo ri " gândirea es e mai mu% o ac i i a e de repre*en "ri concre e4.MENTALITATE DI=ERITĂ DU,Ă SEW ŞI DU,Ă RASĂ. ) M#& 6 +&n 6r"!& " nt !#r#!t"r&0'r&(" "nt#(&t'+&& d 6' "F *& d 6' r# '.

O "r7#+& n& d" r"6"t#t" #r d !"$ d 6' n&&$ (# !on!( 0&# !' (o%" "&&$ d&n !# 0# nor !ond&+& n& &0&o(o%&!" *& 6 & o(o%

#!" t"&#$ " t" d& "r&t' d" (o%&!# 'r #t ( &. A*#$ " 0&!" !' " "&#$ !# 0# d" "! &(& r ( & d&ntr" n!+& n&(" d" # & &(#+&" *& d" # &!'!& (# " "" #r 6r"7#(# n!+& n&(" d" # & &(#+&"5 ) &" d&n !#&n t&n!t ( & #t"rn$ #r #7"# o % nd&r" #& !on!r"t'$ #& &nt &t&7 6 +&n # tr#!t' d"! t #!""# # 'r #t ( &. =" "&# d" # " "n"# #r & #!on "r7#to#r"$ #d&!' #& "%o!"ntr&!'$ d"! t 'r #t ($ "t!.$ "t!. To#t"



; E 0 L I # i% a

#!" t" o "r7#+& n& n # 6r& &t Bn ' o 7"r& &!#r" "tod&!' *& n&!&#t t d" n "ro# " !# ' !on t&t &" n t&6 d" "nt#(&t#t" &n" d" &n&t#!""# d" o "nt#(&t#t" " "&# !' n " 6o#t" 7or & d"! t Bn Bn+"(" 6 & o(o%&!$ &#r n (o%&!.

Tot #*# d" n"6r"!& " nt *& !#r#!t"r&0'r&(" "nt#(&t'+&& d 6' r# '5 #(t &ntr"(& Bntr" !#r#!t"r&0'r& Bnt (n& o#rt" (t" d&ntr" #!"("# !#

!on t&t " ! "nt#(&t#t"# 6r& &t&7 ( & *& # !o6&( ( &. M"nt#(&t#tr# '$ !# *& "nt#(&t#t"# d 6' "F$ +&n d" do "n& ( , & o(o%&"& *&Lo%&!"&. C"( 6 +&n 6 n' # t'0&1<.




E OLUŢIUNEA MENTALITĂŢII. CERCETĂRI EW,ERIMENTALE. ) C (t #& &nt"r" #nt" 6"ntr t d& ( Lo%&!"& nt !"r!"t'r&(""F6"r& "nt#(" !#r" #&B '! t # 6r# d" 7o(t'r&& &n+&& !o6&( (&nt"r" "#0' 6" !o6&( (# d& "r&t" 7 r t" C" 6' tr"#0' #&!(#r " or&#!o6&( ( & In !" !#t"%or&& %r# #t&!#(" " "F6r& ' d" 6r" "r&n+' !o6&A!" t" nt Bntr" 'r&$ (# !#r& " 6o#t" r' 6 nd" 6r&n !"r!"t'r&"F6"r& "nt#("5 Bntr" 'r& ! #(" !'ror r' 6 n r& " 6ot ( &n# (t" 6ro (" " d" #(" Lo%&!"&.

A( r"d P&n"t@< #tr' " " Bn!' d" (t #t"n+& n"# 6 & o(o%&(or *& 6"d#%o%&(or # 6r# d"o " &r&& &nt#(" !#r" "F& t' Bn "(# or#r"# %(o%&!" (# !o6&&. D#!' #& (+& !o6&& d" !r& #!"(#*& o &"!t$ !o 6o

'! t" d" "& n&!&od#t' n " 6otr&7" ! Bntr" "(". S nt !o6&& !#r& d" !ro &"!t&7 *& #(+&& &"!t&75 n&& # n t&6 d" % nd&r" #& *t&

#& (&t"r#r$ #d&!' #& & #%&n#t&7$ "t!.C"r!"t'r&(" ( & P&n"t # o t r"( #t"$ #& Bn r '$ #(t' or '$ d"

!'tr" . St"rn$ Bn G"r #n&# *& #n " ! #& (t' "F#!t&t#t" *&!ont&n &t#t". In (o! d" # " 'r%&n& (# d" !o6"r&r"# t&6 r&(or &nt#("d" !r&"r"# n & o &"!t$ . St"rn Bnt "6r&n " ' !"r!"t"0" "F6"r& "nt#(

'rt r&&(" 2# &r #+&&("< o# "n&(or$ (# d& "r&t" 7 r t" *& (# d& "r&t! (t r' *& ' 7#d' d#!' n " t# &(" ! #n &t" d& "r"n+" !on t#nt" Bntr" '&#t *& #t'$ Bntr" t n'r *& 'tr n$ Bntr" o ( ! (t *& &n! (t$ "t!.5Bntr"6r&n "$ ! n ! 7 nt$ ' #!' 6 & o(o%&# #rtor&(or d 6' "F$ 7 r%r#d d". ! (t r'3<. T" n&!# "F6"r&"n+"(or ( & "r# o#rt" & 6('$ *& #!"# tt" n&!' # r' # *& 6 n' # t'0& o#rt" & 6('$ #*# !' "F6"r&"n+"(" " 6otr"6"t# d" or&*&!&n"4<. I#t' ! " # (or. S" #r#t' n & %r 6 d" 6"r o#n" o& #%&n' 2 # #& (t" & #%&n&< *& d 6' n o#r"!#r" t& 6 " Bntr"#r nd 6"r o#n"(" !#r& # 7'0 t & #% n"#$ !" B*& #d ! # &nt" d&n "#. C ! 7 nt$ " !"r!"t"#0' " or&# #!" tor 6"r o#n". A!"# t' !"r!"t#r" " #!"Bn do ' od r&$ #n ": 1< " (# ' 6"r o#n"(" ' r"6rod !' d&n " or&""(" Bn '*&$ 6ont#n *& @< " # t' 6"r o#n"(" 6r&n Bntr" 'r& d" 6r" 7'0 t". In (o! d" & #%&n& " 6ot 6r"0&nt' 6"r o#n"(or *& !"n"$ #d&!#!+& n&5 # (& " 6ot ro t& ! 7&nt"$ (# !#r& 6"r o#n"(" tr" " ' r' 6 n# o!&#+& n& d" ! 7&nt". In r*&t " 6ot 6r"0&nt' 6"r o#n"(or ( !r r&!#r" "(" nt +&n t" ' (" d" !r&"$ d 6' ! '!"# Bn!' d"(# Bn!"6 t A.P&n"t.





S" Bn+"("%" (" n" & 6ort#n+# 6" !#r" o # 6"ntr Lo%&!' r' 6 n r&(" !#r" d# (# #!" t" Bntr" 'r&. D#!' "7o( +& n"# "nt#(&t'+&& !o6&( ( & " t" ("%d" #n &t" 6r" "r&n+" Bn r"6rod !"r"# ( & " or&#('$ 6r"! *& Bn#6"r!"6+&# ( &$ #t n!& #!"# t' !on t#t#r" #!" 6ro # &(' &6ot"0#$ !' tr"!"r"#d" (# "nt#(&t#t"# 6r& &t&7 ( & (# "nt#(&t#t"# o ( & d" *t&&n+' " #

t#d&& d& "r&t" d" "7o( +& n"$ !#r" &"!#r" Bn 6#rt" " 6r"0&nt' !# n tot("t"*t"$ *& 6r&n r #r" !' #!""# !" n & "nt#(&t#t" *t&&n+& &!' n "

r"0 (t#t ( Bn%r' 'd&r&& d" ! no*t&n+"$ !& " t" ("t"*t" n tot n&t#r$ o#t&t d&n" no ' # &n+&& o "n"*t& !#r" # Bn(o! &t 6" !"("(#(t" d" t ( d"n "ro# "$ 6" !#r" ("-# #& #7 t #!""#*& &nt" Bn d"! r ( "7o( +& n&& Ş& (# #!"# t' !on t#t#r" d ! to! #& "F6"r&"n+"(" d" !#r" # 7or &t #& .Co6&( ( #r"$ d 6' 7 r t# ( &$ d& "r&t" 6r" "r&n+". Co6&( ( &! 7"d" 6r& 6r& # t#n+&#(&t'+&& *& # 6"r on& &!'r&&5 !o6&( ( !"7# #& #rtr"! t d" 1 #n&$ 7"d" *& " "F6r& ' 6r&n !#t"%or&# #!+& n&&$ # Bn *&

r ' d" tot$ 6r&n #!""# # !# 0#(&t'+&& d&ntr" ( !r r&. , n' ' # n%' (#Bn+"("%"r"# # tr#!+& n&& *t&&n+& &!"$ !o6&( ( tr"!" 6r&n d& "r&t" !#r" &"!#r" B*& #r" n&t#t"# # !#r#!t"r& t&!' <. 8+aris, 188G), 2 oi. 7. F .06am&er%ain, Die Grundlagen des 7l7-ten 8ahrhunderts , (?i%nc6en, 1899) #. :oui%iee,

Ps#chologie du %eu%le )ran%ais (+aris, :. #%ean) şi o de #. :oui%iee, Es9uisse %s#chologi9ue des %eu%les euro%eens (+aris, :. #%ean). 2) #. Bine , L:annee %s#chologi9ue, III (189J) L:etude e6%erimentale de l:intelli-

gence (+aris, 19=A) I. +iage , La re%resentation du monde che1 !en)ant (+aris, : #%ean) Le ;ugement el le raisonnement che1 !en)ant (+aris, :. #%ean).

3) <i%%iam F ern, Angewandte Ps#chologie. *eitr5ge 1ur Ps#chologie der Aussage,

1. 7e$ . (19=A). Aussagestudium. E&enda. Die Aussage als geistige Leistung u. als!erhdrs%rodukt. (Bei r"ge *. +sDc6. der #ussage A. 7e$ . 19=G).<irklichkeils- &ersuche(E&enda, 2. :o%ge, 1. 7e$ . 19=G).=atsachen u. 3rsachen in der ersten Kindheit.(E&enda 2. :o%ge, 2. 7e$ . 19=@).

4) ?"rie Bors , E6%erimenlelle 3ntersuchungen ii er die Er1ieh arkeit u. =reueder Aussage (Bei r"ge *. +sDc6. der #ussage, 2. :o%ge, 1 7e$ ). BrenMing,! er die

Er1ieh arkeit der Aussage ( ei sc6ri$ $ur angeC. +sDc6. III Bd. 7e$ 1O2 19=9).P

8) Iu ce pri eş e s a&i%irea men a%i " ii dup" ras", sun in eresan e scrieri%e/ ;e0om e de 3o&ineau, Essai sur l:inegalite des races humaines (II eme Edi ion,



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13. Eric6 Fc6roder, Die Entwicklung der Au))assungskategorien eitn "chulkinde(#rc6i $ur die ges. +sDc6o%ogie, HHH, 1O2 7e$ ).ICOANA UNEI E,OCI SAUREXN IEREA TRECUTULUI. ,ROPA UDICIARĂ. )- Intr"# &r #+&&(" '! t" d" o# "n&& d&ntr o "6o!' tr"! t' " %' " ! (t"# &n&t'+& *& d" o #*# n#t r' nt #!" t" # &n&t'+&$ !' # &r #+&&(o# "n& "F# &n#t" d"(# d& t#n+' #6#r !# or nd o n&t#t" ("t"# !'. D"#!""# " 7or "*t" d" 6&r&t ( n"& "6o!& & tor&!". A!""# !" # #n& "

("t"*t"$ Bntr o "6o!'$ 6#r" # & !on t&t &nd n tot. D&n #!" t tot$ d! no*t& n #& ! t"7# "(" "nt"$ ! #!" t" "(" "nt" ! no ! t" 6o+&r"!on t&t & r" t (. S# &n7"r $ ! no ! nd tot ($ #d&!' n&t#t"# !#r" ("#"(" "nt"("$ 6o+& "(& &n# d&n #!" t tot #!""# !" n " 6otr&7"*t" ( &$

"r # Bn!r"d"r" !' #!""# !" n " 6otr&7"*t" n&t'+&&$ n # "F& t#t n&!&r"#(&t#t". A*#$ n'o#r'$ d#!' d&ntr o !r&"r"$ # d&ntr o !o("!+&" ddo! "nt" & tor&!"$ r"&" " &!o#n# n"& "6o!"$ #*# ! #& o t o &*n7"0& #!"# t' &!o#n' d&n (t" #(t" !r&"r& *& do! "nt"$ #t n!& #!on7&n%"r"# !' !r&"r"# *& do! "nt"(" 6" !#r" (" #& Bn#&nt"# t# nt !#d"7'r#t d&n #!"# "6o!'5 r"&" " Bn ' d&ntr o !r&"r"$ # d&ntr o !o("!+&do! "nt"$ o &!o#n' (t d"o " &t' #!"("& o &*n &t" +&"$ #t n!& 6r&% nd B+& " t"$ !' !r&"r"# # do! "nt"(" d&n#&nt"# t# nt #(*"5 !'!&" t" ! 6 t&n+' !# o# "n&& d&n #!""#*& "6o!' ' & o t ("t"*d& !ord#n+& Bntr" "&. D" !" Bn ' #& #!" t % nd =&&nd!' #(t "( n #& 6 tr"Bn7&"0& "6o!# 6" !#r" 7r"& ' o ! no*t&. D" Bnd#t' !" &!o#n# 7r" && n

#& " t" n&t#r'$ "# n #& 6#r" 6(&n' d" 7&#+'1<.A!"(#*& r#+&on# "nt B( #!" *& #t n!& ! nd " t" ' n" d' "# # d"

t" "&n&!&# n"& 6ro " d&!&#r".C" " n "*t" o 6ro ' Bn 6r#!t&



L E C Ţ I A UI-#

d&!&#r' In Bn+"(" ( !"( #& (#r% #( ! 7 nt ( &$ !#6't' n "(" d" 6roor&*&!" #6t$ !#r" #d !" ! &n" t" "& ( n"& o (&%#+& n& # n &@<.I 6ort#nt 6"ntr d"!'tor " t" t" "& ($ d#r ! 6" #!" t# n -1 6o#t"#7"# d 6' 7o&"$ d"!'tor ( tr" &" ' " (+ "# !' ! "F& t"n+#

#6t ( & d" 6ro ')$ !#r" &&nd !on!o &t"nt # n"d" 6'r+&t d" t" "&$"r7"*t" !# '-( #!r"d&t"0" *& 6" #!" t# d&n r '. Dr"6t ( *& o (&%#+& n

d" ! 6'r'tor *& 7 n0'tor$ 6r" "F.$ r"0 (t' d&n t" "& ( t# &(&r&& 6r"+*& # !on & +' nt ( & d" tr#n &t"r" # ( !r ( & Bntr" do ' 6"r o#n"$ d! #!" t t" "& " t" !ont" t#t d" n# d&ntr" 6"r o#n"(" !#r" # ( #t 6#rt"(# "($ *& d"!& n -1 6 t" #7"# d 6' 7o&"$ n" (+ & 6"ntr #!r"d&t#r"#"F& t"n+"& ( &$ ! #6t"(" #!!" or&& !#r& (-# Bn o+&t5 n'o#r' ! #!t!#r" # '! t #t n!& Bntr" 6'r+&$ # ! # &r #+&&(" #rtor&(or$ !## & t#t$ "t!. ,r&n r #r"$ 6ro # d&!&#r'$ Bnto! #& !# *& do! "nt& tor&!$ "r7"*t" !# ' r"Bn7&"0" d#t ( tr"! t$ !#r" " t" !ont" t#t *& Bn or&!#0 !#r" n " 6o#t" r"6"t#. Cond&+& n&(" 6" !#r" (" !"r" d"(# n ndo! "nt & tor&! tr" &" ' (" !"r" *& d"(# o 6ro ' d&!&#r'. In 6r&r nd$ 6ro # tr" &" ( #t' Bn !o 6("t ( "&5 d&n "# n 6 t" #("%" #!""# !"n" !on7&n" *& ' (' ' (# o 6#rt" #!""# !" n !on7&n"$ 'r' !# 6r&n #!"# t#

' (' & # tor&t#t"# Bn '*& # 6ro "&. ,ro # d&!&#r' #6o&$ !#do! "nt ( & tor&!$ tr" &" ' &" !on7&n%'to#r"$ #d&!' to#t" "(" "nt"(

#(" ' !on!ord" ! "F& t"n+# t" "& ( & 6" !#r" "# 7r"# '-( #!r"d&t"0" *& B#!"(#*& t& 6 "# ' " "F6(&!" !# n #6t n#t r#(. P n'o#r'$ # #7"# d" 6r"o !r& ' 6"tr"! t'$ !# 6ro '$ 'rt r& &r&(" n"& 6"r o#n" !#r" # o t d" #+'QC# 6ro # ' &" !on7&n%'to#r"$ n " t" d" t ( !# "# ' !on!ord" !"F& t"n+# !r& "&$ !& #& tr" &" !# "# ' &" n #6t 7"r&d&!$ #d&!'$



L E C Ţ I A UI-#

d" #+'$ 'rt r& &r&(" ' &" '! t" d" o 6"r o#n' !#r" # 6 t t Bn+"("%" !" t" o !r& '. D#!' 6ro # " +&n" 6" 'rt r& &r&(" n"& 6"r o#n" !#r" n7"d"$ # !#r" *&-# 6&"rd t &n+&("$ # !#r" " t" Bntr o 7 r t' 6r"# r#%#t n!& 6ro # n " t" !on7&n%'to#r"$ d"*& "#$ Bn &n"$ !on!ord' 6o#t" !"F& t"n+# !r& "&. C n ! 7 nt$ 6ro # !# *& do! "nt ( & tor&!$ tr" &#& ' o !on!ord#n+' n#t r#(' 6 & o(o%&!'$ n n #& o !on!ord#n+'Bnt 6('to#r" ! #6t ( 6" !#r" 7r"# '-( #!r"d&t"0".



D&n #!"# t' d&n r ' !"r&n+'$ ) # !on!ord#n+"& 6 & o(o%&!"$ -) r"0 (t't" n&!# 6"!&#(' # d" !o6"r&r&& #rtor ( & &n!&no . 2D&n #!""#*&r"0 (t' *& t" n&!# d" !o6"r&r&& . #( ( & Bn #!t ( !r& $ d#r # 6r#t" n&!& n &n & t' . E# or "#0' !#6&to( ( !"( #& &nt"r" #nt Bn no*t&&n+' # Gr# o(o%&"&. Con!ord#n+# 6 & o(o%&!'$ d#!' " t" 7or # d" 6r&n #rtor&$ " t" n# *& #!""#*& ! 6 & o(o%&# #rtor r ( &. ,r&n

'rt r&# or#('$ 6"ntr # "r7& !# 6ro ' "r&o# '$ tr" &" ' !on!ord" nn #& ! #6t ( "Ft"rn$ !#r" " t" ' &" 6ro #t$ d#r tr" &" ' !on!ord" *! 6 & o(o%&# #rtor ( & Bn *&.

) Kar% ;amprec6 , Ein)uhrung in das historische Denken, ;eip*ig, 1912Bern6eim, Lehr uch der historischen 4ethode.



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4

8) Qeremie Ben 6am,=r5ite des %reu&es ;adiciaires ( rad. umon , +aris, 18A=), I,p. 1>. « 0e es e o pro&"R In 'n e%esu% ce% mai %arg ce se poa e da aces ui cu ân , se 'n e%ege prin pro&" un $ap presupus ade "ra , care poa e ser i ca mo i de acredi arepen ru e is en a sau nee is en a unui a% $ap 4. Edouard Bonnier,=r5ite theori9ue et

%rati9ue des %reu&es en droit ci&il et en droit criminel, 2 oi. +aris, III eme Edi .,18>2.18- DIAGNOSTICAREA A=IRMĂRILOR LA MARTORI. ) =&"!#r" #!t d" !on*t&&n+'$ !#r" &ntr' Bn % nd&r"# n & o $ n r' n" &0o!& t&nd" ' " &nt"%r"0" % nd&r&& tot#("$ '! nd ! #!"# t# o n&t#1<.Un&t#t"#$ # t "( '! t'$ " t" !# o #t&t d&n" # 6"r o#n"& Bntr"%&$ # tr 6*& # ("t ( & 6"r o#n"&$ &&nd!' (# n&t#t"# #!t"(or !on*t&"nt" !or" 6*& n&t#t"# or%#n& ( & #t"r&#( #( 6"r o#n"&5 % nd&r"# &"!'r &

r #r"$ " t" n tot or%#n&!. ,r"! # 7or &t d" "nt#(&t#t"# 6r& &t&7' *&d" "nt#(&t#t"# !o6&( ( &5 6r"! # 6 t"# 7or & d" "nt#(&t#t"# n & 6o6or # # n"& r# "$ tot ! #!"(#*& dr"6t # 6 t"# 7or & *& d"

"nt#(&t#t"# 6" !#r" o Bn '+&*"#0' &"!#r" 6"r o#n' Bn 6#rt"$ &&nd!' &" 6"r o#n' % nd&to#r" " t" o n&t#t" or%#n&!'$ Bn !#r" #!t"(" d" !on*t&&n+' ("#%'$ n " Bn%r' 'd" !. D#!' n 7or & d" "nt#(&t#t"# &"!'r"& 6"r o#n" Bn 6#rt"$ !# 0# " t"$ n !' # " "n"# "nt#(&t#t" n #r & "F& t nBn .r"#(&t#t"$ !& &&nd!' "# n 6r"0&nt' 6r"# (t &nt"r" *t&&n+& &!Bn '$ ! nd " t" n"7o&" d" ! no#*t"r"# n"& # " "n"# "nt#(&t'+&$ *t&&n+

o 6o#t" r"!on t&t & ! #!""#*& #!&(&t#t" !# *& 6" !"("(#(t". Ş& #!" t#- "!#0 ( ! nd n" 6ro6 n" ' d&#%no t&!' $ #d&!' ' d"o " & $ Bn 6 "("n & #rtor$ #!""# !" " t" #( d" #!""# !" " t" !or" 6 n0'tor #6t"(or.

M#rtor ($ Y) !# n ( d&ntr" !"(" #& & 6ort#nt" &07o#r" d" 6ro ' d&!&#r'$ Z) #r" #r!&n# ' n" r"d"# Bn ! &6 ( !"( #& "F#!t o t#r" d"( !r r& 7'0 t' d" "(. A!""# !" # 7'0 t "($ #!" 6#rt" d&n !on*t&&n+# ( & tot#('!# 6#rt" &nt"%r#nt'5 " t" n "(" "nt ordon#t n&t'+&& % nd&r&&Bnto! #& ! Bntr n do! "nt 7"! & & tor&! &"!#r" # &r #+&" " ("#

od n#t r#( ! tot#(&t#t"# ! 6r&n ( & *& n 6o+& &nt"r6o(# !"7# tr

do! "nt ( &$ 'r' ' r ! "0& #!ord ( !" " "F6r& ' d&n do! "nt (



L E C Ţ I A I W- #

4

Bntr"%$ tot #*# *& Bn % nd&r"# n & #rtor !"(" 7'0 t"! #d"7'r#t n

# o!&#t" Bn od tr n *& o6 n r"0& t"n+' (# &ntrod !"r"# n"& # &r!#r" n !or" 6 nd" !"(or 7'0 t". Intr" ( !r r&(" % nd&t" *& 7'0 t"$ Bn#!"(#*& t& 6 *& #!"(#*& (o!$ " t" o #(t' # o!&"r"$ !# Bntr" ( !r r&(" % nd&&nt"r7#(" d& "r&t" *& #r#n #t" Bn r ' ! &nt"n+& n"# d" # # ! nd" #d"7'A o!&"r&(" 7"! & nt Bntr o #(t' ("%'t r' ! n&t#t"# or%#n&!' #t"r&#( 6"r o#n"& d" ! nt !"(" no&$ #*# !' & (o#!"(" d" "F6r" & n" "r7" ! 6"!"(" d&nt & Bn #(t od d" ! "r7" ! 6" !"(" d&n r '. D" #!""#$ " t" d" oo "r7#r" ! r"nt'$ !' #rtor&& #(*& " tr'd"#0' 6r&n 7or ' *& 6r&n & &!(or Bn %"n"r". L# or&!" # &r #r" #( ' 6" !#r" o #! #!"*M #rtor&$

!or" 6 nd" o & &!'$ o &nton#+& n"$ o &*!#r" or%#n&!'$ ! n ! 7 nt#t&t d&n" "F6r" &7'$ !#r" n " #!ord' ! r&t ( nor #( #( or%#n& ( &!#r"$ 6r&n r #r"$ 6o#t" "r7& dr"6t & 6to #( 6r" "n+"& #( ( &.

#rtor n'o#r'$ !#r" &ntrod !" o # &r #r" #( ' Bntr n *&r d" #(t"# &r 'r& !or" 6 n0'to#r" #6t"(or 7'0 t"$ n 6o#t" ' o6"r"0" #!"# t'&ntrod !"r" 'r' ' 6ro7o#!" o 6"rt r #r" Bn r&t ( nor #( #( r" 6&r#+&"&

#("$ !#r" 6"rt r #r" " t" 6"ntr no& n & 6to &% r5 *& Lot #!"(##rtor$ d#!' #r & "F# &n#t Bntr n (# or#tor d" 6 & o(o%&"$ 6" ( n

6"rt r #r"# r&t ( & r" 6&r#+&"&$ #r #& 6r"0&nt' *& o t r r#r

!on t"(#+&# nor #(' # t'r&(or #(" ("t"*t&$ d&n !#r" #r r"! no#*t" # &r #r"# #( ' " t" n >&ntr ?$ # o >&nt"r6o(#+& n" ? "*t"* %&*&r ( # &r 'r&(or &07or t" Bn od n#t r#( d&n ( !r r&(" 7'0 t"$ "t!. 6r#!t&!# d"!'tor"# !'$ nd" n nt (# Bnd" n' &n tr "nt"("(# or#tor ( & d" 6 & o(o%&"$ n" 6 t" "r7& d" "tod# !o 6#r#t&7'o "r7' 6" #rtor$ Bn "( r&t"(" #(" #n& " t'r& ("t"*t&$ 6 n' # n%" ' n" !on tr & 6 & o(o%&!"*t" n&t#t"# "nt#(&t'+&& #(" *&d"(# &n"$ 6" #0# #!" t"& "nt#(&t'+& !on tr &t"$ # n%" ' d&#%no#!""# !" " t" #( d" #!""# !" " t" #d"7'r#t Bn 6 "(" #("<.

) i orio Benussi, Die Atmungss#m%tome der Luge. #rc6i $ur die gesam.



L E C Ţ I A I W- #

4

A #7 t 6 n' #! Bn 7"d"r" !ond&+&&(" Bn !#r" " #!" d&#%no t&!#r

# &r #+&&(or n & #rtor d&n "d& ( no tr !&7&(&0#t. S' n" tr#n 6 n"Bn "d& ( o ( & 6r& &t&7. D&n !o 6#r#+&# 6" !#r" 7o #!"-o$ 7or r"0&n or #+&& d" n d"o " &t &nt"r" 6"ntr no&. [o 7"d"# d&n "(" 6" !" !#%r"# # tr" &t ' r!" #d"7'r ( 6 n' ' # n%' (# (o! ( 6" !#r"-I o! 6'# t'0& Bn ! (t r# o "n"# !'.

+sDc6o%ogie, HHHI, p. 2GG—2JA 7ugo ?iins er&erg,Grund1uge der Ps#chotechnik,;eip*ig, 191G o ;ippman, Die "%uren interesse etonter Erle nisse u. ilire "#m%-

lome (Bei6. ei . $ur angeC. +sDc6. I, 1911) 0. 5"du%escu ?o ru, Psihologiamartorului (F udii $i%oso$ice, oi. I), p. 2AJ—2GJ.



,"ntr # r6r&nd" #( ( d&n # &r #+&&(" n & #rtor$ no& n" "r7& d" o (+& " d" & (o#!"$ !#r" (&6 " ! ! d" '7 r*&r"o ( & 6r& &t&7 6r& ( r nd n" "r7& d" ! no*t&n+# #t&t d&n"&$ 6" !#r" Bn od o &*n 6' tr"#0' #rtor ( !&n t&t. A!"# t' ! no*t&n+' n& # & 6 Bn!' d&n!o6&('r&". In !'r+&(" d" *!o#('$ Bn t"#tr $ Bn (&t"r#t r'$ "t!.$ 6r"t t&nd"n& #Bnt (n&t-o #6ro#6" ! #!"("#*& !#r#!t"r". In ( &n# #!" t"& ! no*t&n+"$ 6r&# #t"r&(" 6" !#r" (" 6r"0&nt' d"(# "# #t&t d&n"# #rtor ( & n"!&n t&td" !o6"r& #( (. O ( 6r& &t&7 n #r" #!"# t' ! no*t&n+'. T&6

#rtor ( & !&n t&t 6"ntr "( n "F& t'. EF& t' 6"ntr "( d& "r&+&& &nd&!#r" # Bnt (n&t Bn 7&#+'$ d#r n "F& t' t&6 r&$ &&nd!' 6 n' (# ## tr#!+&& &nt"# ( & n " r&d&!'.



; E 0 L I # Ha16. In # #r' d" ! no*t&n+"$ no& n" "r7& (# d&#%no t&!#r"# #rtor (

d" o (+& " d" & (o#!" t" n&!"$ !#r" to#t" nt 6rod "(" !&7&(&0#+& 6" !#r" o ( 6r& &t&7 n (" #r". M& (o#!"(" t" n&!" # t' (# r"!on t&t &!ond&+&&(or Bn !#r" ( !r r&(" # 6"tr"! t5 "(" nt & (o#!" d" 7"r&O ( 6r& &t&7$ *& d#!' #r #7"# (# d& 6o0&+&" & (o#!"(" no# tr" t" n&("-#r t&(&0#$ &&nd!' n !r"d" Bn "(". M& (o#!"(" t" n&!" 6r"

n& or &t#t"# Bn "r ( n#t r&&5 6r& &t&7 ( n !r"d" Bn #!

n& or &t#t". O ( !&7&(&0#t 6"ntr #-*& &F# d#t"(" o "r7#+&"& 5#6r"!&# #& &n" t& 6 (5 6"ntr # ' r# #& 6r"!& 6#+& (5 6"ntr #*& 7"d"# #& &n"$ "t!.$ r"! r%" (# &n tr "nt"5 '( #t"! ( n r"! r%

&&nd!' n & t" n"7o&# n"& o "r7#+&& "F#!t". N"7o&# n"& o"F#!t" o & t" n #& o ( !#6# &( d" # tr#!+&". O ( 6r& &t&7$ *&

'( #t"! ( d" # t'0&$ # !on*t&&n+# (or 6r&n ' Bn tor"nt ( & #%&n&(or & 6" t" !#r" n " 6r#6 n r#6ort r&(" t# &(" d#t" d" # tr#!+&". D" #!""# n # & (o! ( d" 7"r& &!#r" # #d"7'r ( &. ,"ntr "& #d"7'r ( tr" &" ' &d" &n" (# ( &n' 6r&n & (o!&r"# n"& 7r# ". S' " #r#t" #& t#r" !# o

!# otr#7# *& !# o#rt"#. A*# " "F6(&!' 6"ntr !" 6ro # d&!&#r' #r" Bn& tor&# o "n&r&& n tr"! t #t t d" Bn!'r!#t d" "ror&.J @ORGANI AREAG\NDIRII IN INTUIŢIE. ) D&n !"(" #r't#t" 6 n' #!& r"0 (t'$ !' o% nd&r" n #*t"#6t' & t" #t&0#r"# *t&&n+& &!' 6"ntr !# "# ' " or%#!& Bn &"!#r" % nd&r" or%#n&0#r"# " 6rod !" d" &n"$ &&nd!' #!ond&+& n&(" 7&"+&& Bn '*&. S"n #+&&("$ r"6r"0"nt'r&("$ "nt& "n! 7&nt"("$ #!t"(" d" 7o&n+'$ "t!.$ "t!.$ n t# d" &n" &0o(#t"$ !# o &(Bntr n #(on$ !& to#t" #!" t" "(" "nt" ("t"*t&$ d" !#r& n" 7or "*t

J ) <i%%iam Qames, Precis de Ps#cholo#ie ( rad. Baudin e Ber 6ier. +aris, 191=), p.19J.



; E 0 L I # Ha, & o(o%&#$ nt d#t" Bntr n tot or%#n&! *& d&n #!" t tot no&# tr#!+& n" (" &0o(' . ,ro (" # !"# #r"$ 6" !#r" tr" &" ' o d" ("%' $n " t" #*# d#r$ ! d&n d& "r&t"(" "(" "nt" ("t"*t& # n%" (# d&

&nt"0"$ # B 6r" n'r& ("t"*t&$ ) &nt"0"$ n"(" (o%&!" *& #(t"(7#(o#r" (o%&!'$ ) !& ! d&n &nt"0"(" n#t r#(" 6" !#r& (" %' & Bn 7&% nd&r&& o "n"*t&$ 6 t" "(& &n# 6" !"(" 'r' 7#(o#r" (o%&!' 6"ntr # (o! !"(or (o%&!". C #(t" ! 7&nt"$ 6"ntr # #!" # &r 'r& ! !#r#!t"r d"

!"rt&t d&n"$ % nd&r"# o "n"# !' n #*t"#6t' ' " #r#t" Lo%&!#$ !& "# ##!" t" # &r 'r& d&n t"nd&n+# # &r"# !' d" # " !on "r7# 6" &n" *&!on "r7# or%#n& ( Bntr"% !'r &# B& #6#r+&n". Lo%&!# %' "*t" d#t dBn#&nt" !#r#!t"r ( # &r 'r&(or$ #d&!' !#r#!t"r ( "7&d"n+"&$ *& n tr"*&-( &n7"nt"0"5 "# tr" &" n #& ' d"6(# "0" #!" t !#r#!t"r d" "7&d"n+r"tr'% nd -1 Bn!"t ( ! Bn!"t ( d"(# # &r 'r&(" 'r' 7#(o#r" (o%&!' 6r"# &r 'r&(" ! 7#(o#r" (o%&!'. Lo%&!# Bndr"#6t' 6r" Bn('n+ &r& no& *&#!" t"# 6r" r"0 (t#t" no&$ n!+& n&(" ("t"*t& "F& t"nt"$ 'r' ' !r

n!+& n& no&. To#t" n!+& n&(" d" !#r" #r" n"7o&"$ "# (" %' "*t

, & o(o%&"5 or&%&n#(&t#t"# Lo%&!"& " t" Bn ' !' "# #!" d&n n("t"*t& o Bntr" &n+#r"



LOGICA GENETICĂ . 1

6"!&#('$ !#r" d"6'*"*t" !#dr ( , & o(o%&"& *& #n " Bntr" &n+#r"# d%' & #d"7'r (. In , & o(o%&" "7&d"n+# " t" t d&#t'$ !# #6t n#t r#( ("%o &nd&7&d #(&t#t" or%#n&!'$ 6" ! nd Bn Lo%&!' "7&d"n+# " t" t d&#tr"0 (t#t n"!" #r &"*&t d&n !on+&n t ( # &r 'r&(or Bn '*& &nd& "&nd&7&d #(&t#t"# or%#n&!'. A7" $ #*# d#r$ do ' 6 n!t" d" 7"d"r" d"o " &

Intr ! t or%#n&0#r"# % nd&r&& r' n" Bn !#dr ( ! r#t 6 & o(o%&!$Bntr ! t #!"# t' or%#n&0#r" n r 'r"*t" #d"7'r ($ !& r" ("!t"#0' n #&

t#r"# "& n#t r#(' d" "F& t"n+'$ or%#n&0#r"# % nd&r&& " n "*t" &nC nd (' ' & + r&(" ' 6"r!"#6' ( "# "Ft"rn'$ ) . "F. d" ! &d"

o! && 6"ntr # 7"d"# Bn r ( no tr $ 'r' # &nt"r6r"t# *t&&n+& &!"*7'0 t"5 -) # n" (' ' t rB+& (# 7o&# # o!&"r&(or d&ntr" t'r&(" d!on*t&&n+'$ (+ &nd -n" n #& ' ( ' #!t d" #!""# !" " 6"tr"!" Bn#!"# t' !on*t&&n+'$ Bn #!" t" !#0 r& #7" &nt &+&". A!" t" &nt &+&&$ 6 t" d"o " &$ n"(" & 6(" d#t" d" &"!#r" & + Bn 6#rt"$ *& #(t"(" d

tr !t r' !o 6("F' d#tor&t' # o!&"r&& d&ntr" #!t" d& "r&t" d" !on*t&&n+'$ totd"# n# B 6r" n#t" ! !#r#!t"r ( d" !"rt&t d&n". Tot !""# !" &nt & $ n"#6#r" !# &% r *& !# "7&d"nt$ &&nd!' Bn t& 6 ( &nt &+&"& #t&t d&" t" 6# &7'5 &nt"# r" ("!t"#0' !""# !" o t'6 n"*t" 6" "# d" #6t$ 'r'n&!& n !ontro( *& 7"r& &!#r" d&n 6#rt"# #F<.



; E 0 L I # H % a

17. P&n" Bn+"(" o &nt &+&" 6 r'$ " t" %r" d" !on!&(&#t ! r"#(&t#no# tr' ("t"# !'$ !#r" " t" Bn & 6o & &(&t#t" ' " +&n' Bntr o 6# &# o( t'. C &#r &nt &+&# (# !#r" " r" "r' & t&!& ( " t" d"6#rt" d" 6 r'$ -) totd"# n# " %' " ! Bn "# r " d" &nt"r6r"t#r"$ !#r" nt n#d#o 6" t"# #!""# !" d' r" ("!t#r"# 6 r *& & 6( # t'r&(or d" !on*t&&n+'9<. Int &+&# 6 r' " t" #*# d#r n ot#r &d"#($ d" !#r" n" 6 t" #6ro6&# 'r'#-1 #t&n%" 7r"od#t'. D&n #!"# t' !# 0' " "F6(&!'$ 6"ntr !" n&& &(o o &n"%(& "#0' ! d" '7 r*&r"$ 6" ! nd #(+&& #! n #*# d" #r" !#0 d" d n #

n&& 6("#!' d"(# &6ot"0# !' % nd&r"# o "n"# !' " t" Bntr o 7"*n&!'

#!t&7&t#t" (o%&!'$ 6" ! nd #(+&& 6("#!' d"(# &6ot"0# !' #d"7'r ( " 6o#t"o%(&nd& Bn % nd&r"# o "n"# !' *& 'r' #!t&7&t#t"# (o%&!' # #!" t"&#.Q

UNITATEA ,SI OLOGICĂ ŞI UNITATEA LOGICĂ A CONŞTIINŢEI.Y)-To#t" ! t" &ntr'$ Bntr n o "nt d#t$ Bn ! 6 ( !on*t&&n+"&$ or "#0'Bntr" d n "(" o n&t#t"5 # #& &n" 0& $ !on*t&&n+# o "n"# !' & 6(&

&n" Bn '*& o or%#n&0#r" n& &!#to#r". A!"# t' or%#n&0#r" n& &!#to#Bn 6r& ( r nd$ Bn d"6"nd"n+' d" &nd&7&d #(&t#t"# or%#n&!' # #!"( &# #r" !on*t&&n+#$ #d&!': d#t"(" !on*t&&n+"& " n& &!' d 6' &nt"r"!on "r7'r&& &nd&7&d #(&t'+&&. In #( do&("# r nd #6o&$ or%#n

n& &!#to#r" # !on*t&&n+"& d"6&nd" d" "F6"r&"n+# #!" t"&#5 #!""# !" # trod#t' 6r&n !on*t&&n+'$ " 6' tr"#0' Bn " or&" *& "r7"*t" (# # & &(#r"no&(or #!t" d" !on*t&&n+' *& # t "( "F6"r&"n+# tr"! t' "r7"*t" 6"ntr # d# o

n&t#t" #!t #(&t'+&&. D" #!""#$ ! nd n" %' & Bn 6 r' &nt &+&"$ #d&!' #! nd (' ' !# d#t"(" & + r&(or ' 6(" ! 6 ( !on*t&&n+"& no# tr"$n&!&od#t' n nt" Bn r& ! ( d" # n" 7"d"# !on*t&&n+# !otro6&t' d" d#t"d& 6#r#t" *& 'r' ("%'t r' Bntr" "("$ !& totd"# n# d#t"(" " !o 6("t"#0' Bntr"

7. 7o$$ding, La asc %s#chologi9ue des ;ugements logi9ues. (5e ue p6i%osop%iiSue, HH I e #nnee, 19=1, p. AG@).

9)7. e%acroi , Eludes d:histoire et de %s#chologie du 4#sticisme (+aris, 19=8)T



; E 0 L I # H % a

"(" *& or "#0' o n&t#t"$ &&nd!' "(" !or" 6 nd n"& #t&t d&n& n&or%#n&!" *& n"& #t&t d&n& n&t#r" # " or&"& . N # &ntr#t Bn !on*t&&n+"&$ d"! t #!""# !" # &nt"r" #t or%#n& ($ # # 6 t t %' & nBn " or&".

," #!"# t' n&t#t" # !on*t&&n+"& " nd"#0' n!+& n&(" &nt"t&!"! no#*t"r&& ( && "Ft"rn" *& &nt"rn" *& #n ": 6#+& ($ t& 6 ($ # "*& d& "r"n+&"r"#$ r#6ort ( d&ntr" tot *& 6#rt"$ d&ntr" !# 0' *& " "!t$ &nt"*& !o6$ "t!. To#t" #!" t" n!+& n& or "#0' #!""# !" n & "F6"r&"n+#

& + r&(or *& d"! r% d&n n&t#t"# !on*t&&n+"&$ !#r" r' n" ' &" !on

!# n #6t nd# "nt#(.



LOGICA GENETICĂ>G

C &#r # o!&"r&(" d&ntr" d#t"(" & + r&(or$ !#r" nt #& 6 +&n !on t#! nt n!+& n&(" &nt"t&!" #(" &nt &+& n&&$ B*& d#tor"#0'6"r &!on*t&&n+' *& #& #(" 6o & &(&t#t"# d" # 6 t"# & tr#n or #t" Bn d"6tot 6" #0# n&t'+&& !on*t&&n+"&. Intr o !on*t&&n+'$ !#r" n #r & n&t# 6 t"# Bnr'd'!&n# # o!&"r& t# &(".

Un&t#t"# d" !on*t&&n+' 6" !#r" o %' & Bn ' (# #0# t t ror #!" tor n!+& n&$ # # o!&"r&$ n " t" n&t#t"# !#r" !or" 6 nd" &nt"r"

Lo%&!"&$ !& " t" n #& n&t#t"# 6 & o(o%&!' # !on*t&&n+"&$ #dn&t#t"# !#r" !or" 6 nd" &nt"r" "(or &nd&7&d #(&t'+&& 6 & o- & &

#!"( &# !#r" % nd"*t"5 n&t#t"# !#r" !or" 6 nd" &nt"r" "(or Lo%&!"& " tn&t#t" &d"#('$ n 6o t (#t #( !"r!"t'r&& *t&&n+& &!"$ " t"$ ! o "F6r"

( & K#nt$ o n&t#t" d" > !on*t&&n+' Bn %"n"r" ? 2P"] t "&n && "r # 6<.P&n" Bn+"(" $ n&t#t"# #!"# t# n " ("#%' d" n Lo%o tr#n !"nd"nt$

"# " t" n #& o !on tr !+&" nor #t&7' # &nt"(&%"n+&& o "n"*t&. Con tr!#r" n " t" Bn ' o & 6(' !on tr !+&" !on7"n+&on#('$ &&nd!' 7"d" !' "& B!or" 6 nd" d" 7o(t#r"# "! (#r' # *t&&n+"&$ !#r" " t" *& "# n "( dor%#n& .



L E C Ţ I A W ( ( - #

18. ANALOGIE INTRE DES OLTAREA ŞTIINŢEI ŞI AINDUSTRIEI. )Un&t#t"# nor #t&7' # !on*t&&n+"& Bn %"n"r"$ #d&!' #Lo%&!"&$ 6" !#r" o 6o t ("#0' #d"7'r r&(" *t&&n+& &!"$ " t" #+' d" n 6 & o(o%&!' # !on*t&&n+"& Bntr o &t #+& n" #n#(o#%' ! &t #- +&o #r" t" n&!# &nd tr&#(' #+' d" &*!'r&(" r#+"(or o "n"*t&. Bnto! #& !t" n&!# &nd tr&#(' " 6o#t" !on &d"r# !# o 6r"( n%&r" # r#+"(or o "n"tot #*# *& n&t#t"# (o%&!' # #d"7'r r&(or *t&&n+"& " 6o#t" !on &d"r# 6r"( n%&r" &d"#(' # n&t'+&& 6 & o(o%&!"5 d#r 6r"! t" n&!# &nd trdo nd&t ! 7r" "# ("%&(" "& 6ro6r&& d" d" 7o(t#r"$ !#r& n #& 6" d"6# &nt" ! "!#n&!# r#+"(or$ tot #*# *& #d"7'r r&(" *t&&n+& &!" *&-# ! r 6ro6r& (or$ #t t d" 7# t$ !' 7'0 nd -1$ d" # &# B*& #& # &nt"!&n"7# !' or&%&n"# ( & # o t n&t#t"# d" !on*t&&n+' # &nd&7&d ( & o@<.1 11UNITATE ŞI SISTEMATI ARE ŞTIINŢI=ICĂ. ) = n!+& n"# d"

n& &!#r" & 6(&!' Bn &n" & t" #t&0#r"#$ #*# !' to#t" #!t"(" n"& !on* 6r&n #6t ( !' nt n& &!#t"$ nt *& & t" #t&0#t". S& t" #t&0#r"# ! r#t &"!t&7'$ Bntr o !on*t&&n+' 6 & o(o%&!' &nd&7&d #(' *& " t"

# nor #t&7' 6"ntr to+& o# "n&&$ Bntr o !on*t&&n+' >Bn %"n"r" ?.#!"# t' !# 0' n&!& n Bntr" &n+' ! 7 nt ( d" & t" #t&0#r"$ ! nd 7ord" or%#n&0#r"# n"& !on*t&&n+" 6 & o(o%&!" &nd&7&d #("$ !& Bntr"! 7 nt ( d" #t&t d&n"5 n &nd&7&d #r" o #t&t d&n" &nt#('$ d#r n n D" # " "n"# n&!& or%#n&0#r"# !on*t&&n+"& n"& !#t"%or&& d" &nd&7! (t r'$ 7 r t' # "F$ n o d"n & & t" $ !& tot #t&t d&n"$

"nt#(&t#t". ,r& &t&7&& o "nt#(&t#t" 6ro6r&"5 !o6&&& # o "nt# 6ro6r&"$ d#r n n & t" . D"n &r"# d" & t" o r"0"r7' or%#n&0'r&&!#r" o do nd" ! "(" "nt"(" !on*t&&n+"& >Bn %"n"r" ? 6" #0# n&t'+

1 ) Imm. Kan , Kritik der reinen !ernun)t. ranscenden a%e E%emen ar%e6re.Cei er 6ei%. ie rans. ;ogiM.

11 ;udCig P<o% mann, Der historische 4aterialismus. iisse%dor$ 19== E. Kapp,Grundlinien einer Philoso%hie der =echnik (18JJ) ;. Noiree, Das <erk1eug und seine

*edeutung )ur die Entwicklungsgeschichte der 4enschheit (188=).



L E C Ţ I A W ( ( - #

(o%&!". N #& #d"7'r r&(" *t&&n+& &!" #! 6r&n r #r" 6#rt" d&ntr n!r"d&n+"(" *& !on7&n%"r&(" 6ro6r&& #(" &nd&7&d ( &$ Bntr ! t "("

n&t#t"# 6 & o(o%&!' # !on*t&&n+"&$ #! 6#rt" d&ntr o #t&t d&n"$ "nt#(&t#t". S& t" ( Bn " n"#0' !"7# o &"!t&7 *& n #& #d"7'r r&

*t&&n+"& !on t&t " n & t" .



LOGICA GENETICĂ >J

In (o! ( ! 7 nt ( & > & t" #t&0#r" ? " 6o#t" 0&!"$ *& n&& !r"d C' #& &n" ' " 0&!'$ >ord&n" # ordon#r" ?. =&"!#r" !on*t&&n+' Bntr

" t" n& &!#to#r" " t" *& !on tr !t&7' d" ord&n"5 n& &!#r"# *& ordo"r% B 6r" n'. C# *& ! n& &!#r"#$ nt #& (t" "( r& d" ord&n"$

ordon'r&. E t" ord&6"# &"!t&7'$ &07or&t' *& 6r& &n&t' 6" &nt&"!t&7" #(" &nd&7&d ( &$ *& " t" ord&n"# o &"!t&7'$ &07orBt' *&

!ond&+& n&(" d" d" 7o(t#r" #(" #d"7'r ( &. A!"# t# d&n r ' " t" d"d& "r&t" t&6 r&$ !or" 6 n0 nd (# d& "r&t" tr"6t" 6" !#r& ("-# r!#t 6ro%*t&&n+"&1<.In r*&t$ Bn (o! d" ord&n"$ " #& 6o#t" 0&!" >#!ord ( ! &Bn *& ? #( !on*t&&n+"&$ !#r" 6o#t" & &#r'*&$ d 6' ! # 7'0 t !'

n& &!#r"# *& ord&n"#$ d" do ' "( r&: &"!t&7$ Bntr o !on&nd&7&d #('$ *& o &"!t&7$ Bntr o !on*t&&n+' >Bn %"n"r" ?.

T"r "n ( Bntr" &n+#t " t" d#r &nd& "r"nt$ !'!& Bn+"(" ( ( & r"7&n ( *& #!"(#*& ( !r . Lo%&!# !"# 7"! " #7"# 6r" "r&n+' 6"ntr t"r "n ( >

#!ord ! &n" Bn *& ?$ 6" ! nd !"# no ' 6r" "r' t"r "n ( > & t" ?$ # ord&n" ? 1@ 13<.

D&n #6t ($ !' o & t" #t&0#r"$ # o ord&n"$ " t" Bn+"("totd"# n# (# #!t"(" n"& !on*t&&n+" Bn %"n"r"$ d"! r% do ' & 6ort#nt!on "!&n+" 6"ntr Lo%&!':

1. Ad"7'r &0o(#t$ #d&!' # &r #+& n" ! 6r"t"n+&# d" # & *t&&n+&tot *& &0o(#t'$ n "F& t'. Or&*&!" #d"7'r tr" &" ' #!' 6#rt" d&ntr

& t" $ # d&ntr o ord&n"5 or&*&!" #d"7'r tr" &" ' &" > d" #!ord #(t" #d"7'r r& #(" *t&&n+"&5 or&!" ! no*t&n+' & 6(&!' n&t#t"# #!t ( &! no#*t"<.

1@& Iosia6 5oDce, Prin1i%ien der Logik (in EncDc%op"die der p6i%os. <issenc6a$ en, 6erausgege&en on #. 5uge, I Bând. u&ingen, 1912).

a) #ugP. 0om e,$atechisme %osili&iste, A e e G e en re iens 0ourno ,=r5ite de!Enchainement des idees )ondamentales, %i re I/ «% ordre e %a $orme ne $on Su un47. riesc6, /rdnungslehre (1912)/ « ie rdnung is :orderungs%e6re, denn cnMen

6eis $orderud ordnen 4.13)7ermann 0o6en, Logik der reinen Erkenntniss. Ber%in, 19=2, p. @G urm.



LECŢIA W(I I -#

19. S& t" #t&0#r"#$ # ord&n"#$ !#r& " %' " ! (# #0# *t&&n+"&$ !on tr !+& n& &d"#(" #(" &n+&& o "n"*t&$ "(" nt 7"*n&! 6"r "!t& &(d"!& *& *t&&n+# " t" Bntr o 7"*n&!' "7o( +& n". =&"!#r" no ' & t" #t&d" ! &d" or&0ont r& no& *& ! #!" t" or&0ont r& no& 7&n no&(" &6ot"no&(" t"or&& *t&&n+& &!". Şt&&n+# " t"$ 6r&n r #r"$ 7"*n&! Bn ! r7"*n&! Bn ! r " t" *& tr'd &n+# &n+&& o "n"*t& d" # # n%" (# !"# 6"r "!t' *& !"# #& o &"!t&7' & t" #t&0#r" # ! no*t&n+"(or. D&n #!"&#!# 0'$ 6ro%r" ( *t&&n+"& n n" #6#r" !# o tr"6t#t' Bn%r' 'd&r" d"! no*t&n+" 6" o #0' 7"*n&! &d"nt&!'$ !& "( n" #6#r" or # nor r !"r"7o( +& n&14<5 &"!#r" no ' & t" #t&0#r" &ntrod ' #d !" d 6' &n" o 6r" #!"r" Bn to#t" 7"! &(" ! no*t&n+"5 *t&&n+# #6#r" # t "($ Bnto! #& !#

&&o o &#$ !# o 7"*n&!' ( 6t' Bntr" & t" ".G\NDIREA$ OINŢA ŞILIMPA UL. ) A!t&7&t#t"# % nd&r&& & 6(&!' Bn &n" o d&r"!+& n". A %" t" tot n# ! # #7"# % nd ( Bndr"6t#t 6r" !"7#. D" #!""# to+& 6 & o(o%&& 6 n #!t&7&t#t"# % nd&r&& Bn ("%'t r' ! #!t&7&t#t"# 7o( nt#r'$ 6"ntr #d"o " & d" # o!&#+& n"# 6# &7' # t'r&(or d" !on*t&&n+'. . ndt$ Bn6"!&#($ &n & t' # 6r# !#r#!t"r ( & 7o( nt#r 6" !#r" B( #r" #!t ( % nd&r&B( !on &d"r' !# &&nd d#tor&t n!+& n&& d" #6"r!"6+&"$ o n!+& n" &Bn ond$ ! Bn '*& 7o&n+#1<. A % nd& " t"$ ! n ! 7 nt$ o o6"r#+& n"

&nt#(' d&r& #t' d" o #t"n+& n" 7o( nt#r'.In #!t"(" & 6(" d" % nd&r"$ ! #r & . "F. #d !"r"# # &nt" # n &

( !r $ # o o "r7#r" &nt &t&7'$ d&r"!+& n"# " r"d !" (# o #t&t d&#t"nt&7'. S or&*&!" or ' #r & % nd&r"# Bn '$ &" r" tr n ' (# #!t" &

14)E. 0assiier, Das Erkenntniss%ro lem in der Philoso%hie und <issenscha;t der neueren +eii. I Bând (Ber%in, 1911).



LECŢIA W(I I -#

&" !o 6("F'$ "# " t" totd"# n# o #!t&7&t#t" !oordon#t' d 6' n 6(#nd"t"r &n#t$ # $ ! " #& 0&!"$ d 6' n #n &t 6 n!t d" 7"d"r". A!" t 6(#n$ # 6 n!t d" 7"d"r"$ n " t" n !"7# "! nd#r 6"ntr % nd&r"$ !&d& 6otr&7'$ Bntr ! t " t" 7or # d" Bn+"("%"r"# % nd&r&&$ #d&!' or&"nt#r"# !on*t&"nt' # 6"r o#n"&$ #!" t 6(#n$ # 6 n!t d" 7"d"r"$ " t" n!"7# " "n+&#(.



LOGICA GENETICĂ J=

='r' o d&r"!+& n" &n" &F#t' # % 6d ( &$ n& "n& n 6o#t" # n%! no*t&n+# n & ( !r $ !'!& ! no*t&n+# n & ( !r d"6&nd" to! #& d" ! " !oordon"#0' Bn+"(" ( & 6r" &&(or 6ro7o!#t" d" #!"( ( !r . O ( 6r& &t&7$ d 6' ! # 7'0 t$ " # (' Bn & 6o & &(&t#t" ' "("!t"0" B& 6r" &&("$ 6" !#r" (" d' &nt &+& n"# ( "& "Ft"rn" *& &nt"rn"$ 6"ntr Bntr" "(" # o!&"r& no& *& 7o&t"$ !& "( &# (o! (Bntr"% *& B*&

"nt#(&t#t" nd#t' 6" r"6r"0"nt'r& !o("!t&7". M#& (t Bn!' d"! t o ( 6r& &t&7$ #n& #( ( " %' "*t" Bn #!"# t' & 6o & &(&t#t" d" # "(" "nt"(" % nd&r&& d&n 6(#n ( tot#( #( & +&r"& d&ntr n o "nt d#

#!""# " 0&!"$ ! dr"6t ! 7 nt$ !' % nd&r"# n & #n& #( " !&t"*t" BBntr"%& " d&n #t&t d&n"# ( & o "nt#n'. L# #n& #( n "F& t' % nd &0o#t&t d&n& "( r&t" d" & +&r"5 #t&t d&n& !"r t" d" #d#6t#r"# #n& #

"d& ( Bn !#r" "( tr'&"*t" <.O ($ !# &&n+' % nd&to#r"$ # d" t#t d 6' to#t" 6ro # &(&t'+&("

% nd&r" #n#(o#%' #!"("&# # #n& #( ( &: Bn#&nt" d" # #7"# o % nd&r" #n#! o ! no#*t" # t'0&$ #d&!' o % nd&r" Bn !#r" !on*t&&n+# d" 6#r"(" "nt" *& r"(#+&& d& "r&t"$ "( # #7 t o % nd&r" !o 6#!t'$ # !o("!t&7'$

" !on nd# ! #t&t d&n"# Bntr"% ( & ' or%#n& 5 # Bn!"6 t ! #d#

!on*t&"nt" # Bntr"% ( & or%#n& $ Bn#&nt" d" # #7"# ! r ( d& "r"nr#+&on# "nt ( &<.In t#d& ( #!" t# 6r& &t&7$ % nd&r"# " t" ! d" '7 r*&r" (&6 &t'

!#r#!t"r (o%&!. Lo%&!# !"r" !# t"r "n&& n"& % nd&r& ' &" &n" d" &nr"7&n' totd"# n# ! n Bn+"(" &d"nt&!$ 6"ntr # & Bn+"("*& d" to#t' ( 6" ! nd t"r "n&& n"& % nd&r&$ Bn!' 6r& &t&7"$ nt n"d& "r"n+tdt#(&t#t"# !on*t&&n+"& d&ntr n o "nt d#t$ &#r #!"# t' tot#(&t#t" !ond&+&on#t' "F!( &7 d" &nt"r" "(" &"!t&7" #(" !"( & !" % nd"*t"

t#d& ( #!" t# 6r& &t&7 n " 6o#t" 7or & d" o 7"r& &!#r" # % nd&r&&d" n #!ord #( % nd&r&& ! "( r&t"(" #t&t d&n& &"!t&7" #(" !% nd"*t"5 ! n ! 7 nt$ Bn t#d& ( #!" t# 6r& &t&7 % nd&r"# #6, & o(o%&"& *& n Bn!' Lo%&!"&.In #!" t t#d& #r & r' # 6o#t" 6"ntr totd"# n# % nd&r"# o "n"# !'$d#!' n &-#r & 7"n&t Bn # tor (& # (. ,r&n (& # # d#t % nd&r&& 6o & &(&t#t"# ' " d& "r"n+&"0" d" #t&t d&n"# &"!t&7' # 6"% nd&to#r" *& ' #do6t" o #t&t d&n" o &"!t&7'. A!"# t' #t&t d&n" o &"" t" #!""# # o!&"t'+&& ! !#r" !o n&!' &nd&7&d ( % nd&tor. A! $ d"od! Bntr" &n+#r"# (& # ( &$ % nd&r"# " &F"#0' d 6' o #n &t' tr(& # ( &$ !#r" r' n" Bn+"("# ' d" to#t' ( "#$ 6r&n r #r" !#r" n "

#& ! & ' d 6' #t&t d&n"# &"!t&7' # &"!'r &#. C Bntr" &n



LOGICA GENETICĂ J1

(& # ( &$ ! r ( % nd&r&& B*& do nd"*t" o #( &" !on t#nt'$$&nd&7&d ( 6o#t" r"7"n& ! nd 7r"# *& ! # tor ( !'r"&# #6o& " 6o#t" Bn*& ! #(+&&$ 6" #!"(#*&dr . L& # ( " t" # t "( 6r& ( *& !"( #& & 6od$ !#r" " #r n!' 6r" % nd&r"# (o%&!'.

D#r Bntr" &n+#r"# (& # ( & n " t" Bn!' &!&"nt' 6"ntrtr#n or # % nd&r"# 6 & o(o%&!' Bn % nd&r" (o%&!'. C tot 7" t7or &r"&$ % nd&r"# 6o#t" ' r' n' (&6 &t' d" #d"7'r *t&&n+& &!. L&" t"$ ! # 0& $ n 6od 6r" Lo%&!'$ d#r n " t" Bn '*& Lo%&!#. ,ro60&+& n&(" ! !#r" n" B r'!' % nd&r&(" nt d" o #r" t&(&t#t"$ d#r n

6ro6r&"t#t"# ' ! & d #!" t" % nd&r& d&n &"!t&7"-Bn *t&&n+& 6ro6r&"t#t"# n #& ' * r"0" o6"r#+&# #!" t"& ! & 'r&. In #!" t d&n ro($ "(" # n"%r"*&t o #r" 7#(o#r". D" #!""# &n & t' # 6r# (or.

In 6r& ( r nd$ 7" t nt ( 7or "& 6 n" Bn ! r ( % nd&r&& t"nd&n+n& &!#r". In (o! ( Bn('n+ &r&& &nt"rn" d&ntr" t'r&(" &"!t&7" #(" !o

o Bn('n+ &r" 7"*n&! ( ( !t # &(' 6"ntr !!( !" % nd"*t"$ #7" Bn('n+ &! 7&nt"(or d" 6ro6o0&+& n"$ !#r" " t" o Bn('n+ &r" !on t#nt' *& n&t#r' & 6r&n tr#d&+&". G nd&r"# o ( & d" # t'0& !#6't'$ 6r&n & (o!&r"# (&o or%#n&0#r" 6r"%'t&t' %#t# d" n ( n% *&r d" % nd&tor& !#r& # o t B

In #( do&("# r nd$ tr !t r# 6ro6o0&+& n&&$ 6r&n ro( ( 6" !#r"-1 #r" ! 7Bn(' ntr ( "&$ " t" o 6"r6"t ' o(&!&t#r" (# n!+& n"# d" #n#(&0' # tr#!+& n&&. R"(#+&&(" &nt#!t&!" *& %r# #t&!#(" nt 6r& "(" !#t"%!#r" " Bndr"#6t' % nd&r"# no ( & 7"n&t 6" ( ". Bn7'+ nd # 7or &$ !o6&Bn7#+' # % nd& Bn # tr#!+&&. Str !t r# &nt &+&"& ! &#r " t" & (od" 7or &r"# 6" !#r" o Bn7#+'. Un (& # o%#t Bn r"(#+&& &nt#!t&%r# #t&!#(" " t" !"# #& n' *!o#(' 6"ntr d" 7o(t#r"# % nd&r&&.

C to#t" #!" t"#$ %r# #t&!# n " t" Bn!' #!""# !" 7r"# ' &" Lo%&!#.,ro6o0&+&&("$ !# "(" "nt" #(" (& # ( &$ ! to#t" !' (& # ( " t" n 6ro#( tr#d&+&"&$ r' n d" n#t r' &"!t&7'$ n d"7&n o &"!t&7" *& (o%&!"

E t" #d"7'r#t$ !' (& # ( t&(&0#t d" % nd&tor ( d" # t'0& " t" (& 6" !#r" "( B( %' "*t" Bn tr#d&+&"$ d#r tr#d&+&#$ or&! t d" ( n%' #r &$ nn#t r# # &r #+&&(or$ 6"ntr # (" #!" d&n 6 & o(o%&!"$ (o%&!". ,ro67or &r"& nt (# Bn!"6 t to#t" &"!t&7" *& "(" n d"7&n o &"!t&7

' r' !" " Bn7"! " !$ !& 6' tr"#0' &"!t&7&t#t"# &n&+&#('. A(t &n(& # ( n & 6o6or$ ! o d r#t' d" && d" #n&$ #r r*& 6r&ntr#n or # Bn % nd&r" *t&&n+& &!'. G nd&tor ( d" # t'0&$ B 6r(& # ( 6" !#r"-1 %' "*t" Bn tr#d&+&"$ B 6r t' Bn #!"(#*& t& 6

&"!t&7&t#t"# tr' o*&(or '&. E( !ont&n ' 6 & o(o%& !" t" 6" ' r(& && #(" #t"rn". Ş& B& !ont&n ' 6 n' Bn !"(" #& d"(&!#t" ! t" ("



LOGICA GENETICĂ J2

A!"("#*& & #%&n&$ Bntor 't r& d" r#0'$ &nton#+&& d" # &# 6"r!"6t& &%"n"r#+&" Bn %"n"r#+&" Bn 7&#+# n & 6o6or$ #& n"*t&r &t"$ d"! #& o(&d" #*"0'r& 6o(&t&!". D&r"!+&# Bn !#r" " !# t' & #%&n&("

&( tr#r"# n & % nd5 ord&n"# ! 7&nt"(or 6"ntr # "F6r& # Bn *&r#6ort r&(" d&ntr" ( !r r&5 &nton#+&&(" !#r" Bn o+" ! # &r #+&&("5 BBndo&"(&("$ n"%#+&&("$ "t!.$ nt 6"ntr &"!#r" 6o6or d& "r&t". =&"!##r" %"n& ( (& && #("$ #d&!' #r" 6 & o(o%&# 6"!&#(' (& && #("4<. N ntdo ' (& & (# "($ d&n #!" t 6 n!t d" 7"d"r". ,"ntr #!"(#*& o &"!t$ ##!"(#*& #6t$ %' & Bn (& # n & 6o6or o (+& " d" ! 7&nt"$ &#r$ B

#(t & 6o6or$ #6ro#6" n&!& n (. In (& # n & 6o6or ! 7 nt ( !#r" "F6r&#n &t' Bn *&r" ("t"# !' " t" ! 6r" t&%& $ Bn (& # #(t & 6o6 6r" t&%& . In (& # %"r #n'$ n'o#r'$ ! 7 nt ( > P"r ?$ 6ro " & n"$

n 6r" t&%& $ 6" !#r" n -1 #r" Bn #(t" (& & "! &7#("nt ( ' . ,"ntr"F6r& # Bndo&#(#$ Bn!r"d"r"#$ # n"Bn!r"d"r"#$ &"!#r" (& '$ 6" (! 7&nt"(" or #t"$ #r" *& &nton#+&& !#r" n " 6ot Bn+"("%" d"! t d" #!#r" " t" &ntr#t Bn 6 & o(o%&# (& &&. D" #!""# Bn od d" '7 r*&t &"! no#*t" o &n% r' (& '$ (& # # #t"rn'$ &&nd!' &"!#r" o n 6o##7"# d"! t o &n% r' 6 & o(o%&" &nd&7&d #('. A!"&# !#r" " 6r"

! no !'tor& #& #& (tor (& &$ #!"&# (" 7or " !$ # r' 6" to#t"$ 7or " ! n# &n" *& r' 6" !"("(#(t". C #t t #& (t n 6o#t" & !&n"7(&t"r#t or&%&n#( Bn #& (t" (& &$ &&nd!' or&%&n#(&t#t"# (&t"r#r' Bn 6r& ( r nd d&n 7&rt #(&t'+&(" 6 & o(o%&!" #(" (& &&.



C tot ( d& "r&t " t" !#0 ( % nd&r&& (o%&!". G nd&r"# (o%&!' +&nt"!o#t"r"# # &r #+&&(or d" 6 & o(o%&# % nd&tor ( & 6"ntr # (" #d"od ! t #& "F#!t (# n#t r# o &"!t"(or *& # #6t"(or. C"# #& n'

"F6r& #r" 6"ntr % nd&r"# (o%&!' #r & "F6r& #r"# Bn & o( r& # tr#d" "( ( !"(or d&n M#t" #t&!'. D#r o # " "n"# "F6r& #r" Bn & o( r& #r

& o & 6o & &(&t#t" d" #6t *& totd"od#t' #r & *& Bn d"tr& "nt ( 6ro%r*t&&n+& &!. C'!& 6ro%r" ( *t&&n+& &! " #(& "nt"#0' to! #& d&n 6% nd&tor&(or. In !on*t&&n+# #!" tor# " 6(' 'd" ! tot "( ( d" r"(#+&&# tr#!t" Bntr" 6ro6r&"t'+&("*& &*!'r&(" o &"!t"(or d" "F6"r&"n+'$ !#r" d"!#r" #& or&%&n#("$ !#r" #6o&$ 6r&n " Bn 6ro6o0&+&&(" 7or &r"&$ tr"% nd&tor&& !#r" (" r "#0' dor&n+# d" # (" 7"r& &!# *& d" # (" &7"r#!&t#t"#. Ad" "or& or&%&n#(&- t#t"# 6(' 'd&r&& " t" n #& 7"r #(In7"nt#r"# n & ! 7 nt no $ # & 6(# Bntr" &n+#r" # n & ! 7 nt Bn !no *& n"o &*n &t$ d"*t"#6t' &nt"r" *& 6ro7o#!' 6" % nd&tor (# 7"r& &!C t" !'r+&$ ! 6r"t"n+&& d" *t&&n+'$ n -*& d#tor" ! or&%&n#(&t#t"#& 6r" & n&& d" & t"r$ d" d" on&!$ # d" !"r" !$ 6rod ' d" r"0on#n+#

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o#rt" o%#t$ &&nd!' o( (or ( r"6r"0&nt' "F"r!&+&&(" d" 6r"%'t&r" 6"nn!# *t&&n+& &!' d" #& t r0& . D&n #!" t 6 n!t d" 7"d"r"$ tr" &"

!on &d"r' o%'+&# o( (or ( & ro n !# o r o# ' 6ro & & n".



D#!' % nd&r"# (o%&!' " t" #t t d" tr n ("%#t' d" % nd&r"# 6 & o(o%! & t"*t" "# #t n!& ' " "(& "r"0" d" &n ( "n+# #!" t"&# 6"nt# n%" (# # &r #+&& o &"!t&7" I t"*t" n #& ! #r" #n"7o&n+

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*& #& #!!"nt #t". In G"r #n&#$ n'o#r'$ &o(o%&#$ #ntro6o(o%&# 6 & o(o%&# # #6(&!#+&& ! (t #& 7# t"d"! t Bn to#t" !"("(#(t"&&nd!' #d"7'r r&(" #!" tor *t&&n+" nt Bn G"r #n&# ! r'd'!&n& #& #

d" !"rt&t d&n" d"! t 6r"t t&nd"n& #& r"#. =&"!#r" 6o6or B*& #r" or&0ont*t&&n+& &! #*"0#t 6" 6 & o(o%&# # n#+&on#('. L# n ( " t" (#r%5

o#rt" tr t. ,"ntr n ( *t&&n+# " t" o !ond&+&" nd# "nt#(' # 7&" 6"ntr #(t ( o 6odo# '$ !#r" 6o#t" (&6 & d 6' B 6r" r'r&. C to#t" #!" t"#no& 7or & d" t"nd&n+# % nd&r&& (o%&!" d" # " "(& "r# d" & 6 & o(o%&"& o "n"*t&$ !# d" o t"nd&n+' Bndr"6t'+&t'5 !"7# #& (t#!"# t' t"nd&n+' 7"d" ro t ( 6" !#r"-1 #r" Lo%&!#. or &nd #*#$ n #!"o %r"*#(' N #!" o %r"*#('. Lo%&!# t d&#0' % nd&r"# d&ntr n 6 n!7"d"r" d& "r&t d" ! o t d&#0' , & o(o%&#. G nd&r"# !#r" t' (# #Lo%&!"& " t" nor #t&7'. A!"# t# Bn " n"#0' !' Bntr" o &"!t&7 ( % nd&(o%&!" *& o &"!t&7 ( % nd&r&& 6 & o(o%&!" " t" o d& "r"n+' d" 6O &"!t&7 ( % nd&r&& 6 & o(o%&!" 6o#t" d"7"n& o &"!t&7 ( % nd&#d&!' #d"7'r *t&&n+& &!$ d#!' " !on or ' nor "(or r #t" d" d" 7o(t#r"#*t&&n+"&. Lo%&! ( " t" 6 & o(o%&! ( #d"!7#t #d"7'r ( & *t&&n+&

or#( ( " t" !ond &t# o &*n &t#$ #d"!7#t' nor "(or or#("5 *& #*# !" t"t&! ( " t" o6"r# Bnto! &t' d 6' nor "(" r o ( &. ,r"! Mor#(# *&E t"t&!#$ tot # t "( *& Lo%&!# n #d#o%' (# n 'r ($ !& (# 7#(o#r"# d#t"F6"r&"n+&&.18 1

18%) <. <und , Logik, I (19=>), p. @1 şi urm.s) 7. o%Me% ,3 er die !orstellungen der =iere. Ein *eitrag 1ur Entwicklungs-

%s#chologie. ;eip*ig, Enge%mann, 191G.1 6eodore BuDssen, Essai sur l:e&olution %s#chologi9ue du ;ugement. +aris,

#%ean, 19=G.



@1. CU INTELE I OLATE$ ,RO,O IŢIA ŞI UDECATALOGICA. ) =or # 7"r #('$ ! !#r" n" B r'!' % nd&r"#$ !ontr& &" 6r&n r #r"$ Bntr o o#rt" #r" ' r'$ (# d"t"r &n#r"# #!" t"&#$ 'r' !#"# tot *& ' # n%' (# tr#n or #r"# % nd&r&& d&n #6t 6 & o(o%o6"r#+& n" (o%&!'. EF#!t&t#t"# *& #& #(" o &"!t&7&t#t"#$ !"r t" d" Lo%n " 6ot o +&n" 6r&n & 6(# Bntr" &n+#r" # ! 7&nt"(or. C 7&nt"("$ Bnt &$ ( #t" &0o(#t n 6' tr"#0' #!"(#*& Bn+"(" $ !& "(" 7#r&#0' d 6' 6"r o*& d 6' t& 6 <5 #6o& *& 'r' d" #!"# t#$ ! 7&nt"(" ( #t" &0o(#t n ntr#d !"r" "F#!t' # % nd&r&&$ !'!& % nd&r"# n " tr#n 6 n" Bn ! 7&n&0o(#t"$ !& Bn 6ro6o0&+&& *& Bn!' Bn *&r r& d" 6ro6o0&+&&$ #*# !' &0o(#t " ("#%' d" % nd ( !"( & !" 7or "*t" n #& &nd&r"!t 6r&n & (o!& 6ro6o0&+&"&. G nd&r"#$ !#r" " t" n ! r d" #!t" ("t"*t& *& n o & o &('$ " tr#n 6 n" d&r"!t Bn 6ro6o0&+&& *& Bn *&r r& d" 6roBn(' ntr ( !'ror# #6o& &"!#r" ! 7 nt &0o(#t B*& %' "*t" n Bn+"(" d(o! ( *& n!+& n"# 6" !#r" o #r". A t "($ " t" o#rt" %r" ' # n%! 7 nt ( &0o(#t$ 6r&n & 6( ( ' ro( d" "(" "nt #( (& # ( &$ (# n Bn+"F#!t *& o &"!t&7. ,ro6o0&+&# *& "#$ d"*& Bntr o &t #+&" #& 6r&7&# n%" (# "F#!t&t#t" *& o &"!t&7&t#t"$ &&nd!' *& "# d"6&nd" d" !on"F&!#r" " # (' ! #(t" 6ro6o0&+&&$ d" #t&t d&n"# 6"r o#n"& !#r" 7or "*t" * 6"r o#n"& !'tr" !#r" "# " Bndr"#6t'$ d" o (+& " d" #!tor& ("t"*t&7#r&# &(&@<. C nd 0&!" n'o#r': > ro0# Bn (or"*t" ?$ "F6r& ' o 6ro6o0&+&" !#r" 6#r" ' #& ' d&ntr od#t' n Bn+"(" 6r"!& *& ! to##!" t"#$ !' t nd ' 6r&nd" #!" t Bn+"(" ! to#t' "F#!t&t#t"# *&o &"!t&7&t#t"# !"r t" d" Lo%&!'$

U) ;. <eis&erger, 4uttcrs%rache und Geistes ildung, 1929.



7"d" !' "( n" !#6'. > Ro0# Bn (or"*t" ?$ Bn % r# n & %r'd&n#r !#r"#*t"#6t' ! Bndo&#(' o "nt ( Bn (or&r&& ro0"&$ "F6r& ' n "nt& "nt d ! r&"5 > ro0# Bn (or"*t" ?$ Bn % r# n & o d" *t&&n+'$ "F6r& ' n #d%"n"r#($ #d&!' "F6r& ' #6t ( d" # Bn (or&$ !o n t t ror ro0"(or5 > ro0#Bn (or"*t" ?$ Bn % r# n & 6o"t$ " t" o "t# or' !#r" 6o#t" ' "F6r& " !"("

#& d& "r&t" ( !r r&5 > ro0# Bn (or"*t" ?$ ) n " t" d#r$ Bntr ! t 'r%&n"*t" (# ro( ( ' -d" 6ro6o0&+&" %r# #t&!#('$ o # &r #r" !#r" ' "%' "# !' totd"# n# ! #!"(#*& Bn+"(" $ !& "# " ! & ' d 6' #t&t d&n"

#!"( &# !" 7or "*t" *& d 6' ! r ( 6" !#r" B( #r" % nd&r"# #!"( &# !#r"# ! (t' <.



d"!#t# (o%&!' " t" o 6ro6o0&+& n" %r# #t&!#('$ d#r " t" *& !"7# #& &&nd!' *& % nd&r"# 6" !#r" "# o "F6r& ' " t" !"7# #& (t d"! t % nd&r"

6 & o(o%&!'. G nd&r"# 6" !#r" o "F6r& ' d"!#t# (o%&!' " t" d"t"r &n#t'd" &nt"n+& n"# d" # " 6otr&7& n"& r"#(&t'+& o &"!t&7" n# *& #!""#*&or&*&!" !on*t&&n+' o "n"# !'5 d&n #!"# t' !# 0'$ % nd&r"# 6" !#r" o"F6r& ' d"!#t# (o%&!' r "#0' nor nor " d" &F#r" *& d" r#6ort#r"!#r" nt ! tot ( #(t"(" d"! t ("%&(" n#t r#(" #(" " or&0'r&& *& #("# o!&"r&& t'r&(or ("t"*t& d" !#r" " o! 6' , & o(o%&#. d"!#t# (o%" t" "F6r& #r"# n & ! r d" % nd&r"$ Bn !#r" d& "r&t"(" o "nt" d"t"r &n' n"(" 6" #(t"(" d 6' o ord&n" &F#t' d" #& Bn#&nt" d"

& t" #t&0#r"# *t&&n+& &!'$ *& # 6r# !'r"&# % nd&tor ( " t" +r" ("!t"0" 6"ntr # " !on or #5 6" ! nd 6ro6o0&+& n"# %r# #t&!#(' "

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& &!# " ot&7' *& %" t ($ " # o!&#0' Bn od "!#n&!$ # Bn o!on7"n+&on#( % nd&r&&$ &#r d" #(t' 6#rt"$ Bn d"!#t# (o%&!'$ #7" n #r" ("F& n"$ 6r&n !#r" % nd&r"# " !ontro("#0' 6" &n" Bn '*& 6"ntr # 6 n" d" #!ord ! nor "(" o &"!t&7" #(" #d"7'r ( &. In 6ro!" ( d"d"t"r &n#r"$ 6" !#r!-1 Bn '+&*"#0' d"!#t# (o%&!'$ Bnt (n& !"(" do '

n!+& n& d" &nt"0' *& d" #n#(&0'$ 6" !#r" (" Bnt (n& *& (# 6ro6o0%r# #t&!#('$ d#r 6" n ! 6 d" #6(&!#+& n" ! tot ( d"o " &t.D& "r"n+&"r"# 6ro6o0&+&"& Bn 6'r+&(" #(" " t" o #rt&! (#r" !#r" !or" 6&nt"r" ( & &"!t&7 #!"( & !" 7or "*t"$ 6" ! nd d"t"r &n'r&(" !#r"

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&*!#r" d 6' #t&t d&n"# 7or &tor ( &$ 6" ! nd #!"("#*& n!+& n& d"!#t# (o%&!'$ " #6(&!' 6" n ond t# &($ 6"ntr to+& 7or &tor&& #!"(



A &ntrod Bn d" &n&r"# d"!'+&& (o%&!" "F6r" & n"# >r"#(&t#t" o?$ 'r' ' n" "F6(&!' #& d" #6ro#6" !" Bn+"("%" 6r&n #!" t" ! 7&nt". C"" t" > r"#(&t#t"# o &"!t&7' ?$ Y) !'r"&# % nd&r"# (o%&!' tr" &" !or" 6 nd' L' nd (# o 6#rt" d& ! +& n&(" 6" !#r& M"t# &0&!# (" ("#%#!"# t' Bntr" #r" *& r" tr n% nd -n" (# Lo%&!'$ # n%" (# r 'torr' 6 n : r"#(&t#t"# o &"!t&7'$ !'r"&# % nd&r"# (o%&!' tr" &" !or" 6 nd'$ !on & t' Bn & t" ( d" #d"7'r r&$ !#r" " 6r& &n' d&r"!&nt &+&# & + r&(or$ *& # !'r"& 7"r& &!#r" " 6o#t" #!" or&! nd *& A!" t & t" d" #d"7'r r& " t" !on &d"r#t d" n&& &(o o & !# 6rod

% nd&r&& 6 r"$ #d&!' !# n & t" #6r&or&$ Bn#&nt"# or&!'r"& "F"n & &("$ *& " # n%" # t "( (# !on!( 0&#$ !' 6r&n o6"r#+& n&("(o%&!" o ( 6o#t" &n7"nt# #d"7'r ($ 'r' !on! r ( "F6"r&"n+&&5 #!""# !" t" o "F #%"r#+&". A d"!# (o%&! n Bn "# n' # &n7"nt#$ !& Bn "#7"r& &!# !" " t" !on or #d"7'r ( &5 &#r 6"ntr # 7"r& &!# !" " t" !on o#d"7'r ( &$ " t" d" # o( t' n"7o&"$ !# #& Bn#&nt"$ ' #7" nor "("#d"7'r ( & !on &r #t" Bntr o & t" #t&0#r" *t&&n+& &!'. Lo%&!# #Bn+"(" $ ' 'r& do "n& ( #d"7'r ( &$ d#r n ! & nd d"(# n o "n(# #(t ( nor "(" d" #r% "nt#r"$ !& Bnt&n0 nd nor "(" ! no ! t" *&

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d" &n7"n+& n& *t&&n+& &!". =&(o o &&$ !#r& # !r"0 t Bn #!"#"n&r"$ n # 6 t t ' n" #d !' 6 n' # t'0& n "F" 6( '!#r$ 6r&n !#r" '

n" Bnt'r"# !' *& no ' !r"d&n+# Bn o # " "n"# "n&r" # Lo%&!"&. , n' # t'0&*& 6ro # &( tot #*# 7# & *& Bn 7&&tor$ #!"& !#r& # o! 6#t d" Lo%Bn!"6 t 6r&n #-*& &n7"nt# o r"#(&t#t" o &"!t&7'$ or&%&n#(' #(or$ !# 6" ( &n# #!" t"& r"#(&t'+& ' #("#%' !" " t" *& !" n " t" !on or #d"7'r (!& # 6r& &t$ !# 6" n !" d"(# &n" Bn+"(" $ r"#(&t#t"# o &"!t&7' 6" o# "n&& d" *t&&n+' d&n t& 6 ( (or o #*"0# (# #0# !"r!"t'r&(or (or *&( &n# #!" t"& r"#(&t'+& o &"!t&7" Bn+"(" " # #6(&!#t nor "(" Lo N"%r"*&t$ " 6o#t" !on!"6" *& o Lo%&!'$ !o 6("t or&%&n#('$ !#r" ' 6("d"(# o #(t' r"#(&t#t" o &"!t&7'$ d"! t #!""# Bn+"("# ' d" *t&&n+# t& 6 6r"! " 6o#t" !on!"6" *& o G"o "tr&" #0#t' 6" o #(t' &nt &+& n" d"

6#+& d"! t #!""# # 6#+& ( & ! tr"& d& "n & n& 6" !#r" B( 6"r!"6"o# "n&&$ d#r o # " "n"# Lo%&!'$ !# ' &" Bn+"("# '$ tr" &" ' &" tr#Bn t"r "n&& #d"7'r r&(or ! no ! t"$ ! *& G"o "tr&#$ !#r" " #0"#0' 6



n 6#+& ! #& (t d" tr"& d& "n & n&$ " t" d" on tr#t' 6" ##F&o "(or %"o "tr&!" ! no ! t"$ !'!& #(t "( #r & n"Bn+"("# '. D#r o Lo%&no '$ !#r" #r & ' &" tr#d ' Bn t"r "n&& !"("& 7"! &$ d" !" o(o #rLo! ( 6"ntr d& ! t#r"# n"& Lo%&!& " t" Bn tot !#0 ( Bn M"t# &0&!'.

R"7"n&nd #! (# d" &n&+&# d"!'+&& (o%&!"$ d 6' (' r&r"# # 6r# #!""# !" Bn+"("%" 6r&n > r"#(&t#t"# o &"!t&7' ?$ 6 t" 0&!":



d"!#t# (o%&!' " t" "F6r& #r"# n"& % nd&r&$ Bn !#r" d& "r&t"(" o "nnt d"t"r &n#t" d" 7o&n+# !on t#nt' d" # & Bn #!ord ! n & t" d"

#d"7'r r& "7&d"nt"$ # #& d&n#&nt" 7"r& &!#t". G nd&r"# "F6r& #t' Bnt d"!#t' (o%&!' " t" "F#!t' *& Bn #!ord ! &n" Bn '*&$ Bntr ! t & t" ( d#d"7'r r&$ 6" !#r" "# " nd"#0'$ " t" n&t#r *& 6"r #n"nt. In d"o " &r"d" & 6(# # &r #r" &"!t&7'$ d"!#t# (o%&!' B 6r" n' *& 6 n" Bnr#6ort r& "F#!t" d& "r&t"(" o "nt" #(" % nd&r&&$ d 6' o ord&n" !on &d"r#!# &&nd Bn !on!ord#n+' ! ord&n"# r"#(' # ( !r r&(or. S6r" "F" 6( $# &r #r"# d" #& $ > ro0# Bn (or"*t" ? " t" o & 6(' # &r #r" &"!t&Bntr ! t % nd&r"# "F6r& #t' 6r&ntr Bn #$ n " t" !ond ' d" 7o&n+# d" # Bn #!ord ! & t" ( *t&&n+"& !#r" "F6(&!' o &"!t ( >ro0' ?$ # "no "n>Bn (or&r&& ?. D" Bnd#t' Bn '. !" #!" t #!ord " t# &("*t" Bn 7o&n+# !"( &% nd"*t" *& #!" t# "F6r& ' n o & 6r" & n" tr"!'to#r"$ !& *t&&n+# nr#6ort r"#( d&ntr" o &"!t ( > ro0' ? *& "no "n ( >Bn (or&r&& ?$ d&n #!"

o "nt # &r #r"# Bn!"t"#0' d" # #& & &"!t&7' *& " tr#n or ' Bntr o d"!#t' (o%&!'. >So#r"(" Bn!'(0"*t"? " t" o # &r #+&" &"!t&7' Bn % r#

n & o &n! (t$ !#r" n 6o#t" ("%# d" o &"!t ( > o#r" ?$ # d" "no "n (>Bn!'(0&r&&? o *t&&n+' & t" #t&!'$ d#r #!""#*& # &r #+&"do nd!#r#!t"r ( n"& d"!'+& (o%&!"$ Bn !#rt"#$ # Bn 7or &r"# n & o d*t&&n+'. >Co6&( ( " t" &r" 6on # &(?$ " t" o # &r #+&" &"!t&7' B

n & n"! no !'tor #( *t&&n+"& dr"6t ( &$ d#r " t" o d"!#t' (o%&!' Bn %n & r& t$ !#r" 6r&n #!"# t' # &r #+&" " 6 n" Bn #!ord ! & t" ( *t&#(". N or # 7"r #(' !#r" %' & % nd&r"#$ #!" 6" #!"# t# ' &"

(o%&!' # n"(o%&!'$ !& ord&n"# Bn !#r" #!"# t' % nd&r" " d" '*o#r'$ *&#& #(" !on*t&&n+# 6" !#r" o #r" #!"( !" % nd"*t" !' " %' "*t" Bn #!ord !

r"#(&t#t"# Bn '*& # ( !r r&(or.D&n #!" t" !on &d"r#+&& d"! r% do ' !on "!&n+" #& Bn " n#t":I. ot#r ( d&ntr" & 6("(" # &r #+&& &"!t&7" *& d"!'+&(" (o%&!

o#rt" %r" d" t# &(&t. A &r #+&&(" &"!t&7" nt Bn !ont&n ' ! r%"rot#r ( d"!'+&(or (o%&!"$ 6" t" !#r" tr"! ! # tor ( r' 6 nd&r&& d&n !" B

!" #& (t # ! (t r&& *t&&n+& &!".



d"!#t# (o%&!'$ Bn or # "& !"# #& & 6(' ! &#r$ n"6 t nd - "Bn '6t & 'r' n ond *t&&n+& &! #& d&n#&nt" #d & $ *& Bn!' n

& t" #t&0#t$ r "#0' !' d"!#t# (o%&!' n " 6o#t" d" 6'r+& d"d&r"!+& n"# *t&&n+"& t& 6 ( &$ #d&!' d" "tod&!# *t&&n+"(or5 !' 6r&

Bn or # # !"# #& "(" "nt#r' ! &#r$ % nd&r"# (o%&!' " t" o % nd&r""tod&!'.1J 1 +#5 E# I% a

M E TO D O L O G I AL E C Ţ I A W -#

22. ELEMENTUL EM,IRIC ŞI ELEMENTUL =ORMAL INUDECATĂ. ) ,r&ntr" 6ro (" "(" 6r&n!&6#("$ d#!' n Bn '*& 6ro (" #

nd# "nt#(' # Lo%&!"&$ " t" 6ro (" # "n n+#t' Bn r 'to#r"# Bntr" #r":!" " t" " 6&r&! *& !" " t" or #( Bn !on+&n t ( n"& d"!'+& C nd d"!'+&(": > &"r ( " t" n "t#(?5 >( n# " t" n #t"(&t #( 6' nt ( & #6# Bn% "#+' (# ^ ?5 > 6or ( " "# 'n' 6r& '7#r#?5 >o (d"%"n"r#t #r" 6r"d& 6o0&+&& (# !r& '?5 "t!.5 !" " t" " 6&r&! *& !"

or #( Bn #!" t" d"!'+&

R' 6 n ( (# #!"# t' Bntr" #r" d& "r' d"(# n & t" d" Lo%&!' (# #(t (#!""# !" n " t" d"(o! 6r" (# d# Lo%&!"&. C'!& " t" n"%r"*&t n ( !ro#rt" 6(&!t&!o $ !' to! #& *t&&n+# !#r" #r" d" o &"!t %' &r"# r"% (&(o

!#r" " 7"r& &!' #d"7'r ($ ' &" n"(' r&t' # 6r# 6ro (" "& d"(# !#r" 6orn" ! ! &#r !"r!"t'r&(" "&5 *& Bn (o! d" o o( +&"$ ' #& ' #&

o( +&&$ Bntr" !#r" ' &" !&n"7# &(&t ' #("#%'. M# or&t#t"# & tLo%&!' d" 6 n' #! $ #! ' do &n" Bn !on t&t +&# d"!'+&& "(" "n

1J1) 7. +au%, Princi%iei> cler "%rachgeschichte, I% e #u$%age, p. 8A.) :. 0. F. Fc6i%%er,Formal Logik.

1 5. ?ii%%er :reien$e%s, Die *edeutung der motorischen Faktoren, e c,. ( ier e% -a6r. $ur Ciss. +6i%osop6ie u. Fo*io%ogie, HHH III, p. A@@).



or #(. S& t" "(" d" Lo%&!' #& 7"! & "r% 6 n' (# "F!( d"r"#"(" "nt ( & " 6&r&!. S& t" "(" #& no& #! "(" "nt ( & " 6&r&! o 6#d&n !" Bn !" #& #r". D#r 6 n' # t'0& o (' r&r" d" &n&t&7' n #7" . N#7" n&!& '!#r o ! no*t&n+' 6r"!& ' d" 6r" d& "r"n+# d" n#t r' d&ntr""(" "nt ( or #( *& "(" "nt ( " 6&r&!1<.n"!#t' 6r&n r't'!&r"# & + r&(or.A!" t r' 6 n # (+ &t 6" &(o o & (t' 7r" ". L & &-# !!"d#t #6

n #(t ($ # #& &n" 0& $ &-# !!"d#t (t" #(t"("$ Bn !#r" r"7"(#+&tr"6t#t Bn(o! &t' ! #6t" #& *or !ontro(# &(". D 6' #!" t"#$ r#+& n"# n

&nt"r7"n&t d&ntr od#t' r !$ !# o &n n" 7"n&t' d" $ !& "# *&-# dr ( Bn od n#t r#($ 6r&n d" 7o(t#r"# Bn '*& # ("t ( &$ &&nBnn' ! t' ("t ( &$ n #*t"6t# d"! t o "nt ( !# ("t ( ' o ! " ". L#Lo%o 6 t" # n%"$ 0&!" ,(#to$ d#!' *t& nd" '-( !' t' . ,"ntr%' &r"# ( & #7" D&#("!t&!#.

To#t" #!" t" r' 6 n r&$ # d"7"n&t d" 6r& o # t'0&$ Bn r # r' 6 n ( & d#t d" I . K#nt$ !#r" #d !" Bn #7o#r"# "(" "nt ( & or #($

&n% r# "F6(&!#r" !o 6#t& &(' ! n&7"( ( *t&&n+"& !ont& 6or#n". E("or #( !on & t'$ d 6' K#nt$ Bn or "(" #6r&or&$ !#r" &ntr' d&r"!t B

n!+& n"$ d"od#t' ! "F6"r&"n+# & + r&(or. T& 6 ( *& 6#+& ($ !#6r&or& #(" "n & &(&t'+&& d" o 6#rt"$ !#t"%or&&(" &nt"("!t ( & !# o#(" r#+&on# "nt ( & *t&&n+& &!$ d" #(t' 6#rt"$ # &% r' o &"!t&7&t##r" n"7o&" Lo%&!#. E(" "nt ( or #( n n!+&on"#0' d" &n"$ !totd"# n# 6ro7o!#t d" "F6"r&"n+# & + r&(or5 d" # " "n"# "(" "nt (" 6&r&! d#tor&t & + r&(or n d !" (# o ! no*t&n+'$ d#!' " t" (&6 &"(" "nt ( or #(5 B 6r" n' Bn ' "(" d# !on*t&&n+"& o "n"*t& 6o & &(&

' " r&d&!" (# o "F6"r&"n+' o &"!t&7'$ *t&&n+& &!'.A6r&or& ( #nt&#n " t" n r' 6 n !#r" Bn!"#r!' ' "F6(&!"$ #t

or&%&n"# ! t *& ("%#(&t#t"# ro( ( & 6" !#r" B( #r" "(" "nt ( or #( Bn



d"!'+&& (o%&!". E t"$ 6r&n Bn'(+& "# 6 n!t ( & d" 7"d"r"$ d&n !#r!on &d"r#t' 6ro (" #$ n r' 6 n #& (t &(o o &!. Lo%&!&"n&&t& 6or#n& r"! r% (# "( n #& Bntr o 6r"# &!' ' r'. E& " (+ " ! !on t#t" ro( ( "(" "nt ( & or #( 'r' ' " o! 6" d" or&%&n"#$ # d"("%#(&t#t"# ( &. In 6 (&!#+&&(" (or$ 6ro (" # " t" (' #t' 6" "# # T"oC no*t&n+"&$ ! nd n " t" (' #t' ! tot ( (# o 6#rt".

23. LOGICA =ORMALĂ ŞI METODOLOGIA. ) L' #t' Bn tot ( (#

o 6#rt" n 6o#t" ' &". E t" Bn ' &n" ' n" 'r%&n& $ Bn o( +&on#r"(# #!""# !" 6r&7"*t" Bn od d&r"!t #!t ( d"!'+&&$ &&nd!' d" Bn+"("%#!" t & #!t d"6&nd" ro t ( B 6'r+&r&& Lo%&!"& Bn Lo%&!# or #M"todo(o%&"5 o ! " t& n" & 6ort#nt' *& (# !#r" # r' # d#tor& ' d'd" ( *&r&.



O Lo%&!' or #('$ d"o " &t' d" M"todo(o%&"$ n 6o#t" '-*& t& &!

"F& t"n+#$ d"! t 6r&n ro( ( d"o " &t 6" !#r" (-#r #7"# "(" "nt ( or #( #+'d" "(" "nt ( " 6&r&!. Ro( ( "(" "nt ( & or #( tr" &"$ Bn !#0 ( #!" t#$ '&" n n #& d" 6'r+&t d" #!"(# #( "(" "nt ( & " 6&r&!$ d#r ' &" *

"F"r!&t#t 6" n 6(#n 6r#-ordon#t5 #d&!'$ d" #*# n#t r'$ !# "( ' d"t"r &n"!#r#!t"r&0#r"# *& !(# & &!#r"# #!t"(or d" d"!#t'$ &nd& "r"nt d" o &"!t"("F6"r&"n+"& # 6r# !'ror# #!" t" #!t" " #6(&!'. N #& d#!' ro( ("(" "nt ( & or #( " t" d" 6'r+&t *& 6r#ordon#t !"( & " 6&r&! 6 t"

o!ot& d"!'+&(" !#r#!t"r&0#t" *& !(# & &!#t" 6" #0# ( & 2d 6' !#nt&t#!#(&t#t"$ r"(#+&" *& od#(&t#t"< !# &&nd &n" !#r#!t"r&0#t" *& !(# &

6"ntr to#t" do "n&&(" *t&&n+"(or 6"!&#("5 !'!& n #& #t n!&$ n#t r# 6" !#o # o &"!t"(" #!" tor *t&&n+" 6"!&#(" &&nd &nd& "r"nt'$ d"!'+&(" B*&d"t"r &n'r&(" (or nd# "nt#(" Bn "(" "nt ( or #( Bn od "F!( &7. O d"!#t' " d" &n"*t" #t n!&: !# n&7"r #(' # 6#rt&! (#r'5 # &r #t&7' #n"%#t&7'5 !#t"%or&!'$ &6ot"t&!' # d& n!t&7'5 #6od&!t&!'$ # "rtor&!' 6ro (" #t&!'$ d 6' !r&t"r& ( d#t d" "(" "nt ( or #($ 'r' # & n"7o&+& # +&nBn "# ' !' n&7"r #(&t#t"# *& 6#rt&! (#r&t#t"# Bn M#t" #t&!' " Bn+"("%Bntr n "($ &#r Bn , & o(o%&" Bn #(t "(5 !' # &r #+&# *& n"%#+&#$ nd"o " &r"$ Bn n"(" *t&&n+"$ nt & 6(" &nd&!#+&& d" d&r"!+&"$

r"#(&t#t"$ 6" ! nd Bn #(t" *t&&n+"$ nt %"n"r#to#r" d" "F& t"n+'5 # ! &d 6' n&& &(o o & d&#("!t&!&"n&$ n&!"(" or+" %"n"r#to#r" d" "F& t"tot # t "(: !#t"%or&!$ &6ot"t&!$ d& n!t&7$ 6r"! *& #6od&!t&!$ # "rt 6ro (" #t&!$ nt d"6#rt" d" # #7"# o #6(&!#+&" d" #!"&#*& n#t r' Bn to#t"*t&&n+"(". E t" o#r" Bndr"6t'+&t' #!"# t' n"+&n"r" Bn "# ' S&% r !' n . O d"!#t' &6ot"t&!' Bn *t&&n+# M"!#n&!"&$ #('t r& d" o d"!#t' &6ot"t&!' Şt&&n+"(" N#t r#(" *& #& ! "# ' #('t r& d" o d"!#t' &6ot"t&!' BnŞt&&n+"(" So!&#("$ 6r"0&nt' n"%r"*&t Bn !on tr !+&# # 7"r #(' # " 'n'r& d%r# #t&!'$ d#r Bn #!""# !" 6r&7"*t" ond ( (o%&! " t" 'r' # " 'n#r" !

!"("(#(t". C'!&$ ! 6o#t" & # " 'n#r" d" ond Bntr" o d"!#t'$ !##!"# t#: >d#!' #"r ( " t" n !or6$ "( tr" &" ' #& ' o %r" t#t" ? *& d"!#t#: > d#!' d" o!r#+&# d"%"n"r"#0'$ "# d !" (# t&r#n&" ? S# $ Bntr" d"!'+&(" d& n!t&7": >6o0&t&7$ # n"%#t&7?$ >Bn7&n%&$ #>(& "rt#t"$ # !(#7&" ?$ "t!. S# $ Bntr" d"!'+&(" # "rtor&!" 6" !#r" (" d'*t&&n+"(" &0&!o-! & &!" *& d"!'+&(" # "rtor&!" 6" !#r" (" d' *t&&

or#(" N"%r"*&t$ o # " 'n#r" "F& t'. D#r #!"# t# n " t" d" n#t r' (o%&!'$!& d" n#t r' %r# #t&!#('. D" #!""# to#t" #!" t" !#r#!t"r&0'r& *& !(# & &!'r&#(" d"!'+&(or B*& # (o! ( (or #& ! r nd Bn %r# #t&!' d"! t Bn Lo%&!'. Ş

Bn!' (# Bn!"6 t ( t d& ( & d" %r# #t&!'$ 6"ntr # d# d"6r&nd"r& Bn



!on tr !+&& !or"!t" d" r#0'. In Lo%&!' "(" n nt d" o(o 5 #& ! r nd

tr&!'$ &&nd!' #(& "nt"#0' &( 0&#$ d" t ( d" &n" #(& "nt#t' 6r&n #(t"("$&nt"# o ( &$ ! 6 +&n' n!'$ 6o#t" t'6 n& !"(" #& !o 6("F" r"(#+&& 6r"0"nt#t" d" *t&&n+"(" 6"!&#(".

S 6r#"7#( #r"# ro( ( & !#r" " #tr& " "(" "nt ( & or #( *& 6" #0#!'r"&# tr#d&+&# Bn7'+' nt ( & 6' tr"#0' Bn!' B 6'r+&r"# Lo%&!"&$ Bn Lo%

or #(' *& M"todo(o%&"$ Bntr"+&n" d& !r"d&t ( d" !#r" #r" 6#rt" Lo%&!# B( "# o# "n&(or d" *t&&n+'. C#r" !"r!"t'tor "r&o Bn #(" *t&&n+"& " 6o#t&nt"r" # (# o! ( nor o6"r#+& n& (o%&!" #6(&!#t" Bn od "%#( 6" t" to! 6 ( "F6"r&"n+"&

C " "F6(&!' tot *& 6"r & t"n+# tr#d&+&"& n"& Lo%&!& or #(d"o " &r" d" M"todo(o%&"S" "F6(&!' Bn od ( r 'tor. Ro( ( "(" "nt ( & or #( Bn Lo%&!' n

# & 6 6r&n 6r"0"n+# ( & d&r"!t'$ !& # & 6 &nd&r"!t 6r&n &n"(" "nt ( & " 6&r&!. D"o#r"!" "F6"r&"n+# 6r&n & + r& # #r't#t &(o o&n &!&"nt' 6"ntr # !on t&t & n t" "& #d"7'r ( &$ # r"! r 6"ntr!on t&t &r"# #!" t & t" "& (# n!+& n&(" r#+& n&&$ 6o t ( nd - " !'

n!+& n& nt d&r"!t o6 " n!+& n&(or #7 t" d" & + r&. R#+& n"# Bn &(o o &"$ n 6"ntr # Bntr"%& d#t"(" & + r&(or$ #*# ! #r & o

!& 6"ntr # Bn(o! & #!" t" d#t". E# #7"# ' r& &6"# !' Bnt n"r"! ($ !on 0&#*& # '%"#(# & + r&(or$ 6r&n ( &n# "& d" or&%&n" d&7&n'. A*# &&n"(" "nt ( & or #( &ntrod Bn d"!#t# (o%&!'$ #r" ' " "n+&n' n"!(&nt&! t' 7r" " ro( ( "(" "nt ( & " 6&r&! " #r#t' &n &!&"nt. S nt o#r" " n" 6r"7" t&to#r" # t'0&$ !' #!"# t' 7r" " #r" ' Bn!"t"0" *& od#t' ! "# #r" 'Bn!"t"0" *& &n &!&"n+# "(" "nt ( & " 6&r&!$ Bn !on t&t &r"# t" " 6"ntr #d"7'r S" n" nt *& Bn!' d" t ( d" n "ro# ".



In 6r& ( r nd$ " t" "7&d"nt # t'0&$ !' d#t"(" & + r&(or n #& nt #*#!on 0"$ d" # '%&to#r" *& d" Bnt n"!#t"$ ! "r# Bn#&nt". ," &"!#r" 0& "d"7&n #& o%#t" *& #& 6r"!& "$ 6r&n # tor ( 6" !#r" B( %' "&n tr "nt"(" d" ' r'to#r". Un o & t "(&n n #r #& 6 t"# # t'0& '#r% "nt"0"$ #*# ! #r% "nt# Bn 7r" "# #$ d" 6r"d#t"(" Bn*"('to#r"#(" # 0 ( & *& #(" 7'0 ( &$ &&nd!' 6r& ( 7"n&t (-#r #!" #t"nt !' &n tr "nt" !#r" !or"!t"#0' *& Bntr"%" ! #!""# !" " t" Bn*"('tor Bn d#t"("7'0 ( & *& # 0 ( &. E(" "nt ( " 6&r&! *&-# ( #t !# #(&#t 6 t"r"# d" 6r"!&# &n tr "nt"(or *& ! #!"# t# # tr#n or #t Bn od r#d&!#(. D"&n &!&"n+# ( &$ Bn tot !#0 ($ n #& 6o#t" & 7or #$ Bn!' d" 6" #!

&-t" Bn 7&&tor.In #( do&("# r nd$ o6 ( ' $ "(" "nt ( or #($ n " #& 6r"0&nt'

# t'0& Bn 6o t r# d" #(t'd#t'. N #& " t" !on &d"r#t !# n #d7"r #r &r"d !t& &($ !& d& 6otr&7'$ !"r!"t'r&(" *t&&n+& &!" !ont& 6or#n" B( 7(' t#r &"*&t d&n #!"&#* t (6&n' *& "n&t ' " d" 7o(t" (# #!"&#* Bn'(+&*& "(" "nt ( " 6&r&!. ,"ntr , & o(o%&# d" # t'0&$ n!+& n"# r#+&!on nd' ! n!+& n"# # tr#!+&"&$ &#r n!+& n"# # tr#!+&"& !onBntr"%"*t" n!+& n&(" "n & &(&t'+&&. Un #n &t t&6 d" # tr#!+&" (# n #n &t t&6 d" &nt &+&" "n & &('5 r#+& n"# *& "n & &(&t#t!on t&t &" 6'r+&(" !or"(#t" #(" n"& n&t'+&$ &#r n o d #(&t#t" d" "(" "nt7r'* '*&" n ( ! #(t (19 @<.

191) Qosia6 5oDce, Prin1i%ien der Logik, In der EncDc%op"die der p6i%. <issensc6a$ en, I, ii&ingen, 1912 V 1J, 11G comp. şi <. BurMamp, *egri;) u. *e1iehung,192J, p. 2J9 şi urm.

@ 3. 5"du%escu ?o ru,$urs de Psihologie, Edi ia I% a, Bucureş i, p. 192 şi urm.



L E C Ţ I A W I-#

24. To#t" #!" t" ! no*t&n+" nt ! r"nt" Bn ( "# *t&&n+& &!' d" # t'0&#*# !' " t" d" 6"r#t$ !' "(" 7or (' & *& 7or Bnd"6'rt# Bntr n 7&&tor #6ro6&#t$ tr#d&+&# !#r" +&n" Bnt &"t#t"# Lo%&!"& or #(" #+M"todo(o%&" *& !' (# #0# Lo%&!"&$ Bn Bn+"(" ( #!t ( & d" d"!#t'$ 7#7"# !# 6 n!t d" 6("!#r" 6ro!" ( &r" ! #( # tr#!+&"&$ &#r n o6o0&+&#rt& &!&#(' Bntr" "(" "nt ( or #( *& "(" "nt ( " 6&r&!.DE=INIŢIA

UDECĂŢII ŞI APSTRACŢIA LOGICĂ. D" &n&r"# d"!'+&& (o%&!"$ !#n r#6ort # o r"(#+&" Bntr" do& t"r "n& # do ' no+& n&$ n " t" &n"F#d#r " t" ! d" '7 r*&r" &n!o 6("t'$ &&nd!' n r#6ort Bntr" do ' no+& n& "

t# &("*t" 6r&n or& *& !" # o- !&#+& n" d" % nd&r"$ ( #t' *& ! Bn 6 & o(o%&!5 ! &#r Bn # o!&"r&(" 6" !#r" (" 6rod !" 7& ($ %' & no+& nBn r#6ort. Or&!" 6ro6o0&+&" %r# #t&!#('$ &" (o%&!' # n $ t# &r#6ort r& Bntr" ! 7&nt" *& 6r&n r #r" Bntr" no+& n&. C# ' &" !o 6("td" &n&+&# d"!'+&& tr" &" ' ! 6r&nd' &d""# d" !on tr n%"r"$ 6"ntr #! d"!'. A!"(# !#r" d"!' " t" !on tr n ' r "0" #n &t" nor ". ='r'

6' tr#r"# #!" tor nor "$ d"!#t# ( & " t" o & 6(' # &r #+&".



C. R. M TRU: LECŢII DE LOGICĂ

R#6ort ($ # r"(#+&# 6" !#r" o t# &("*t" d"!#t#$ " t" r"0 (t#t ( 6ro!" ( & d" # tr#!+&"$ !#r" t' (# or&%&n"# &nt"(&%"n+&& o "n"*t& *" t" ("%#t tr n d" 6ro!" ( #t"n+&"&. At"n+&#$ 6r&n 7#r&#t"(" d&r"!+&!#r" (" &#$ 6ro7o#!' # tr#!+&#$ &#r # tr#!+&#$ (# r nd ( "&$ &F"#0' d&r" 6" !#r" tr" &" ' (" &# #t"n+&#. A!" t" do ' 6ro!" " nt n"d" 6'r+&t" Bntot ! r ( d" 7o(t'r&& &nt"(&%"n+&&. E(" & (o!" ! Bn(o! &r"# !o 6("F"&nt &t&7" #(" & + r&(or *& #(" r"6r"0"nt'r&(or # o!&#t" #!" tor# ! r"(#+&"F6r& #t" 6r&n & o#(". L& # ( B*& d#tor"#0' or #r"# # #!" tor do ' 6ro!" ". Or&!" # &r #+&" "F6r& #t' 6r&n ! 7&nt" !on+&n" r"(#+&& # tr#

t# &(&t" 6r&n Bndr"6t#r"# #t"n+&"& # 6r# nor #n &t" d#t" #(" &nt &S& 6(# # &r #+&" '! t' 6r&n o 6ro6o0&+& n"$ " t" #*# d#r (# "( ! d"!#(o%&!'. Un# !# *& !"#(#(t'$ t# &("*t" r"(#+&& # tr#!t". d"!#t# (o%&!'Bnd 6' ! # 6 $ t# &("*t" r"(#+&& & 6 " d" o !on tr n%"r". In !"!on & t' #!"# t' !on tr n%"r" R"(#+&&(" "F6r& #t" Bn 6ro6o0&+&&$ n "(" & 6 " d" o !on tr n%"r" N& "n& n Bntr" &n+"#0' ! 7&nt"(" Bn or&!

"( d" Bn+"(" *& #& #(" Bn or&!" "( d" !on tr !+&". or &r"# ! no#*t!on tr n%"r"# tr#d&+&"& *& !on tr n%"r"# %r# #t&!#('. C" "( d"!on tr n%"r" #(t# " t" & 6 ' d"!'+&& (o%&!"

A tr#!+&# !#r" t' (# #0# d"!'+&& (o%&!"$ " t" d&r& #t' d" ord&n#d"7'r r&(or #& d&n#&nt" ! no ! t". S& o#("(" (# !#r" "# d !"$ #Bn+"(" r& d" &n&t" 6r"!& 5 nt no+& n&$ n & 6(" ! 7&nt". C 7&nd" &n" ! d 6' tr" &n+"(" 7or &tor ( &$ &&nd d"# n !# "(" ' & (o!"#Bn+"("%"r"# d&ntr" o# "n&. No+& n&(" !"r o d" &n&r" ! tot ( d"o " &t'. E

" d" &n" ! d 6' r"% ("(" !#r" # # &% r#t ord&n"# #d"7'r r&(or$ Bn !#r"nt d" t&n#t" *& "(" ' &ntr". d"!#t# (o%&!' " t" # "r7&t' ord "&$ & 6

d" !r&t"r& ( #d"7'r ( &. A!"# t# " t" !on tr n%"r"# 6" !#r" n o ! no#*t" 6ro6o0&+&# %r# #t&!#('. D" #!""# (o%&!# # #& o t n &t' *& *t&&nord&n"& <.

,r&n r #r"$ Bntr o or ' !o 6("t'$ d" &n&+&# n"& d"!'+& 7# #7"# '! 6r&nd' !"( 6 +&n do ' not" !#r#!t"r& t&!": 1. "F& t"n+# n & r#6ort # #

n"& r"(#+&& Bntr" !"( 6 +&n do& t"r "n& *& @. #("%"r"# #!" t & r#6ort$ n & t" *t&&n+& &! ! no ! t d" #& Bn#&nt". d"!#t# " 7# d" &n& #n #!t d" % nd&r"$ Bn !#r" !"( 6 +&n do& t"r "n& nt d"t"r &n#+& Bn #!or

! n & t" d" #d"7'r r& r"! no ! t d" #& Bn#&nt". C"& do& t"r "n&$ !#r"r "#0' ' &" d"t"r &n#+&$ nt &"!t ( *& 6r"d&!#t (5 "& nt *& t"r

!"("& #& & 6(" 6ro- 6o0&+& n& %r# #t&!#(".R"(#+&# 6" !#r" o t# &("*t" d"!#t# Bntr" &"!t *& 6r"d&!#t$ ! nd "#

" t" r"d ' (# #!"*t& do& t"r "n&$ n !on t&t &" Bn!' n #d"7'r5 "# d"7&n"



METODOLOGIA 9

n #d"7'r n #& d#!' " &nt"%r"#0' Bntr n & t" d" #d"7'r r& 7"r& &!#t".Ad"7'r &n% r#t&! n "F& t'5 #!""# !" "F& t' !# #d"7'r$ #!" 6#rt" d&ntr oord&n" d" #d"7'r r&. Ş& #!& %' & o #n#(o%&" ! #!""# !" " Bnt 6(' Bn7or &r"# o &*n &t'. C 7or &tor ( n #r" Bnt & Bn % nd &"!#r" 6#rt" d! 7 nt$ 6"ntr !# #6o& ' (" B 6r" n" Bn 6ro6o0&+&"$ !& #r" #& Bnt &Bn+"(" ( 6ro6o0&+&"& *& n #& 6" r '$ 6r&n #n#(&0'$ # n%" (# 6'r+&! 7 nt$ tot #*# *& ! #d"7'r r&(" Lo%&!"&. Lo%&!&#n ( tr" &" ' #& '

&nt" #& Bnt &ord&n"# d" !"rt&t d&n" # "tod"(or *t&&n+& &!" d&n t& 6 ( ' $ !# 6" r 6o#t' 7"r& &!#$ Bntr ! t d"!#t# # &n% r#t&!' " t" # n #d"7'r.

E t" ! tot ( o #(t' ! " t& n"$ #!""# d" # *t& 6r&n !" "( d" o6"r#+&" d"# tr#!+&"$ d#!' 6r&n #n#(&0'$ # 6r&n &nt"0'$ " # n%" (# d"t"r &n#

&"!t ( & *& # 6r"d&!#t ( &$ 6r"! *& # r"(#+&"& d&ntr" #!"*t& do& L' r&r"# #!" t"& ! " t& n& o %' & Bn Lo%&!# ( & C r. S&%]#D"t"r &n#r"# 6o#t" 7"n& Bn r # n"& o6"r#+& n& d" #n#(&0' *& #t n!& #!"( d"!' #r" Bn &nt"# # o r"6r"0"nt#r" tot#(' d" 6r" n o &"!t *& 6" #!"# t'r"6r"0"nt#r" o d" 6#rt" Bn "(" "nt"5 # d"t"r &n#r"# 6o#t" 7"n& &n7"r $ 6r&n o o6"r#+&" d" &nt"0'$ ! nd #!"( !" d"!' #r" #& Bnt & Bn &nt"# t"r "n&& &"!t *& 6r"d&!#t *&. 6" r ' " % nd"*t" #-& B 6r" n# (#o(#(t'.

&nt"# !"( & !" "F6r& ' o d"!#t'$ " 6"tr"!" o6"r#+&# d" #n#(&0'$ 6" ! ndBn &nt"# !"( & !" # ! (t' o d"!#t'$ " 6"tr"!" o6"r#+&# &n7"r ' d" &nt"0'. N " t" Bn ' "F!( !# o6"r#+&# d" &nt"0' ' " 6"tr"#!' *& Bn &nt"# !"( &!" "F6r& ' d"!#t#. An#(&0# *& &nt"0#$ 6" !#r" (" %' & #!& !# o6"r#+&Bn(" n&nd d"!#t#$ nt d" n#t r' 6 & o(o%&!'$ #*# ! nt # o!&#+&#6"r!"6+&# t'r&(or d" !on*t&&n+' Bn %"n"r" *& "(" n d"7&n o6"r#+&& (od"! t d 6' !" " 6 n Bn "r7&!& ( #!ord ( & !#r" tr" &" t# &(&t Bnt% nd&r"# !"# no ' *& & t" ( d" #d"7'r r& ! no ! t" #& d&n#&nt"$ #d&d 6' !" d"!#t# (o%&!' " t" !on t&t &t'. O6"r#+&&(" d" #n#(&0' *& d" &nt"! #(t" ! 7&nt"$ Bntr ! t nt n"!" #r" or 'r&& d"!'+&& "(" "nt#r" (o%&

nt o6"r#+&& 6 & o(o%&!" *& n Bn!' (o%&!"5 !'!& d#!' #r & (o%&!"$ #t#r tr" & t d&#t" !# 6r& "(" #!t" d" % nd&r" (o%&!' *& n d"!#t#. An#(&0

&nt"0# Bn!"6 ' #6#r+&n' Lo%&!"& n #& !# o6"r#+& n& d" r#+&on#*& #t n!& ! 6r&nd Bn "(" d"!'+& *& # ro( ( d" o6"r#+& n& "todo(o%&!



D"t"r &n#r"# !"(or do& t"r "n& #& d"!'+&& 6o#t" ' &" r"0 (t#t ( *& #( n% nd&r& &n t#nt#n"" # tr#!t"$ Bn !#r" ' n 6 t" d"o " & !(#r o6"r#+&& 6 & o(o%&!" !#r" # 6r"!"d#t5 *& #!" t# " t" to! #& !#0 ( !"( o &*n &t. C"(

#& (t" #n #(" d" Lo%&!' " o! 6' tot *& o#rt" 6 +&n d" #!" t !#0$&&nd!' o t"or&" %r"*&t'$ +&n t' 7r" " Bnd"( n%#t' d" *t&&n+# , & o(o

B( '!"# n"7"ro & &(. In *t&&n+# , & o(o%&"&$ 6 n' ! &#r #! d" ! r nd+&n"# #n "$ !' % n-d&r"# " t" ("%#t' d" r"6r"0"nt'r& *& !' (# #0# or& *&

!'r & r#6ort # tr#!t t# &(&t d" % nd&r"$ tr" &" ' " %' "# !' n r#6ort dr"6r"0"nt'r& !on!r"t"$ #*# !' Bn or& *& !" #!t d" % nd&r" #r r # ' &"r"%' &t" o6"r#+&&(" #nt"r&o#r" 6r&n !#r" "# # r&d&!#t d"# 6rr"6r"0"nt'r&(or5 ! n ! 7 nt$ d 6' #!"# t' t"or&"$ % nd&r"# n " 6o#t" 6r"0"nt# 6ont#n$ !# n #!t "(" "nt#r d" !on*t&&n+'$ !& !# n #!t d"r&7#t.A!"# t' t"or&" " t" Bn ' # t'0& 6'r' &t' d" 6 & o(o%&& #& no&$ !#r"$ d!"r!"t'r&(" "F6"r& "nt#(" # 6r# % nd&r&&$ r"! no ! % nd&r"& !#r#!t"r ( d#!t "(" "nt#r$ #7 nd o &nt &+&" # "& 6"!&#(' <. In #!"# t' &nt &+&" 6"!# "&$ % nd&r"# " 6r"0&nt' ! d"t"r &n'r& 6ont#n"$ r"0 (t#t" d&n 7&#+# 6ro6r&"$ d"t"r &n'r& 6" !#r" #6o& # tr#!+&# !on*t&"nt' (" 6 n" Bn #!ord !

& t" ( #d"7'r r&(or ! no ! t"$ # #& &n" 0& $ (" 6 n" Bn #!ord !nor "(" (o%&!"$ &&nd!' nor "(" #!" t"# (o%&!" n nt #(t"(" d"! t #0"("

& t" ( & d" #d"7'r r& r"! no ! t".,r&n r #r"$ d"t"r &n'r&(" 6" !#r" (" "F6r& ' d"!#t# "(" "nt#r'

(o%&!' n nt 6ro7"n&t" d&n o6"r#+&& (o%&!" #nt"r&o#r"$ !& nt r"0 (t#!t&7&t'+&& n#t r#(" # % nd&r&&$ o #!t&7&t#t" o%#t' *& 7"*n&! Bn !'d"t"r &n'r& or&%&n#(" *& !#r" &07or'*t" d&ntr n ond ! (t #& #d n! d! t " t" ond ( Bn *& #( o6"r#+&&(or (o%&!"5 o6"r#+&&(" (o%&!" Bn!"6 !d" r"! no#*t"r" # #!ord ( & d&ntr" d"t"r &n'r&(" 6ont#n" #(" % nd&r&& *d"t"r &n'r&(" 6" !#r" (" & 6 n" & t" ( *t&&n+"(or !on t&t &t".

Ord&n"# #d"7'r r&(or & t" #t&0#t" *& r"! no ! t" ! !#r" % nd&r"# !"#no ' tr" &" ' " 6 n' Bn #!ord$ 6o#t" & d"n &t' *& #(t &nt"r&$ d 6'

o( +& n"# "t# &0&!' 6" !#r" !&n"7# o d' 6ro (" "& r"#(&t'+&&5 "# 6o#t" *& # *& o t$ d"n &t': !on*t&&n+' tr#n !"nd"nt#('$ !on*t&&n+' Bn %"n"!on*t&&n+' o!&#('$ ( "# &d"&(or$ & + !o n$ "t!. C"# #& n' d"n &r#r & 6o#t" #!""# d" >"F6"r&"n+' *t&&n+& &!'?$ &&nd!' Bn #!"# t' d"n &

nt ! 6r&n " #t t &d""# & t" #t&0'r&& *t&&n+& &!"$ ! t *& &d""# 6##!t&7&t'+&& ("t"*t&@4<. Or&! #r & Bn '$ #!" t > !" ?$ o &"!t&7 *& n"!" #r$!#r" "r7"*t" dr"6t !r&t"r& 6"ntr t# &(&r"# #!ord ( & d&ntr" % nd&r"# !no ' *& #d"7'r$ n " t" o ! "&" #%&!'$ 6r&n & (o!&r"# !'r"&# n"-#r & d#

' d" ! &d" d 6' 7o&" 6or+&(" #d"7'r ( & <. , n' !" &(o o && ' !#d' d"



#!ord # 6r# n#t r&& "t# &0&!" # #!" t & > !" ?$ no& n" (+ & ! Bntr 6#r"# & tor&!' 6" !#r" "( *&-# d#t-o Bn *t&&n+# & t" #t&0#t' *&-( &d"nt&! #!"# t#.



Şt&&n+# " t" Bn ' Bn !ont&n ' !r"*t"r"5 #t n!& ! 6o#t" "r7& "# dr"6t #0'Lo%&!"& Nor "("$ 6" !#r" (" #6(&!' (# t# &(&r"# n & #d"7'r no $ n

"r' "(" Bn 6r" t&%& $ ! nd (" *t& B 6r t#t" d&ntr n & t" #d"7'r r&$ !#r" n nt d" &n&t&7" A!"# t' !ont&n ' !r"*t"r" # *t&&n+"&n" Bndr"6t'+"*t" o#r" ' !' t' Lo%&!"& o #(t' #0' #& #d n!' Bn

tr !t r# &n+&& o "n"*t& N"%r"*&t !' d#5 n #& !'$ d"*& # Bndr"6t'+&+& ' !' t' o # " "n"# #0'$ n 6 t" tot *& # n%" (# "#. To+&

&(o o &&$ !#r" # 6r"t&n # & d" !o6"r&t !#t"%or&&(" nd# "nt#(" #("o "n"*t&$ n # '! t #(t!"7# d"! t ' r"0 " & t" #t&0'r&(" *t&&n+"&! r"nt". M (+& (o%&!&"n& # Bn!"r!#t ' o!o("# !' #!"# t' d& &! (t#t". Un&# ( #t !# #0'$ Bn (o! ( *t&&n+"&$ 6o t (#t ( "7&d"n+&&$ n "( d" 6r"7"(#+&" "t# &0&!'$ &#r #(+&& # d" 6'r+&t Lo%&!# Bn do ' 6'r+&: o! r#t or #('$ Bn !#r" # #*"0#t nor "(" d"r&7#t" d&n ! t"7# 6o t (#t"

& 6(" *& "7&d"nt" 6r&n "n n+#r"# (or$ &#r !"#(#(t' 6#rt"$ #*# n &t# "todo(o%&"$ # r"0"r7#t-o nor "(or d& ! t# &("$ !#r" nt Bn ("%'t r' d&r"!t'! or%#n&0#r"# d& "r&t"(or *t&&n+". In ! &6 ( #!" t#$ "t"rn' " t" (o%

or #('$ &#r r"(#t&7' " t" "todo(o%&#. C nd "F# &n' Bn ' #& d"#6ro#6" r#+& n"# #!" t"& d" 6'r+&r&$ !on t#t' !' "# " r"d !" (# o!(# & &!#r" d" ord&n" & tor&!' *& #n ": nor "(" (o%&!" #0#t" 6" *t&&n7"! & d" !r&6t&7"$ *t&&n+" d&n !#r" (&6 "*t" #6(&!#r"# "tod&!' "F6"r&"n+"&$ nt tr"! t" Bn 6#rt"# Bnt &#$ Bn (o%&!# or #('$ &#r t!"("(#(t" nor " (o%&!"$ #0#t" 6" *t&&n+"(" no& *& ! d"o " &r" 6" *t&&n"F6"r& "nt#("$ nt tr"! t" Bn 6#rt"# # do #$ Bn "todo(o%&". A!"# t'd" 6'r+&r"$ 'r' Bndo&#('$ B*& #r" Bn " n't#t"# "&$ d#r "# n #(7"#0' Lo%&d" d& &! (t#t"# d" #& . ,#rt"# or #(' # Lo%&!"& n " t" #& 6 +& #0#t' 6" *t&&n+'$ d" ! " t" "todo(o%&#5 *& d#!' #!"# t# d&n r ' " t"r"(#t&7'$ tot #*# " t" *& !"# d&nt &. Lo%&!# or #(' 6#r! # o( t'$ n #&%r#+&" & 6(&!&t'+&& ond ( & *t&&n+& &! 6" !#r" "# " t" #*"0#t'$ &!# 0# 7r" n"& or&%&n& d"o " &t" # "& d" "todo(o%&". S&n% r# d"or"#(' # Lo%&!"& or #(" d" M"todo(o%&" " t" !' "#$ Lo%&!# or #('$ " #0"#0' 6" !#t"%or&&(" (& # ( & Bn+"(" " ! * r&n+' d" or&!" !on*t&o "n"# !'$ 6" ! nd M"todo(o%&# " #0"#0' 6" !#t"%or&& Bn ! r d"d" 7o(t#r"$ # !'rorBn+"("%"r" Bnt 6&n' %r" t'+&. Lo%&!# or #(' " t" *& "o M"todo(o%&"$ d#r o M"todo(o%&" 6"ntr ! no*t&n+"(" "(" "nt#r"$ 6r" 6 " d" %r# #t&!# n"& (& &.



) 7. riesc6, /rdnungslehre, Qena, 1912.

2) e6ris op6 FigCar , Logik, ii&ingen, 18JAO18J8.

) K. ?ar&e, +ur Ps#chologie des Denkens (:or sc6ri e dcr +sDc6o%ogie, I I I .Bând — 1 I %e$ ).

G) #%ois 5ie6%, Der %hiloso%hische Kriticismus und seine *cdeutung )ur die %osili&e<issenscha)t. II, Bând. 1 er 6ei%., p. 219 şi urm. ;eip*ig, 18J9.

>) E. i%rr, Erkenntnistheorie (;eip*ig, 191=), p. 2=>.



L E C Ţ I A W II-#

25. >CATEGORIILE LOGICE. R"0 (t#t"(" (# !#r" # # n #& *& ! d"o " &r" !on "!&n+# (# !#r" # # n !' d"!#t# (o%&!' n " 6o#t"d" 6'r+& d" "tod&!# *t&&n+"(or$ 6#r # !ontr#0&!" t"or&&(" !"(" #& #!r"d&t#d" 6 n' # t'0& #(" #n #("(or d" Lo%&!'. E t" n ( !r Bn d"o *t"! no ! t$ !' #& to#t" #!" t" #n #(" Bn!"6 6r&n # t d&# d"!'+&("(o%&!"$ # ! &#r "(" "nt"(" #!" tor#$ !# 6" n&*t" o6"r#+& n& !#r" t# d"

&n" *& n #& d 6' t d&"r"# (or tr"! (# "tod"(" *t&&n+"(or5 # t "( !'$ d 6"( ( ! 6r"0&nt' #!" t" #n #(" o &"!t ( Lo%&!"&$ #r 6'r"# !' d"!#t#(o%&!' 6o#t" ' "F& t" Bn &nt"# o "n"# !' *& Bn od &0o(#t$ Bn#&nt" d"% nd&r"# !o 6("F' # r#+&on# "nt ( &$ !' o ( ! n ! 7 nt #r #7"#$ Bn#!t&7&t#t"# # d" &&n+' % nd&to#r"$ !on*t&&n+# !' r#+&on# "nt ( ' "B 6"t"!#r" !ont&n ' d" d"!'+& "(" "nt#r"$ !#r" *& "(" #r & (# r nd ( (or oB 6"t"!#r" d" no+& n& &0o(#t". To#t" #!" t" 6'r"r& Bn '$ !#r" #r 6 t"#d"d !" d&n od ( ! #n #("(" o &*n &t" d" Lo%&!' Bn '+&*"#0' #t"r&#Lo%&!"&$ nt ! d" '7 r*&t" "ron#t". In 7&#+# !on!r"t' # % nd&r&& o "n"*

no+& n"# *& r#6ort ( d&ntr" no+& n&$ #d&!' d"!#t#$ n "F& t' !# "(" "n"6#r#t"$ !& !# 6'r+& #(" n & tot d" % nd&r"5 Bn 7&#+# !"# !on!r"t' % nd&r&&$ !o 6("F ( 6r"!"d" "(" "nt ($ !#r" " t" #d (# !on*t&&n+' n #& 6r&n o6"r#+&# d" #n#(&0'. Bnto! #& ! Bn 7&#+# !on!r"t' ("t"# !'$"(" "nt ( "n0#+&on#($ # "(" "nt ( " o+&on#($ n 7&n "6#r#t" *& n d&# o!&#r"# (or B*& !on t&t &" o ( 7&#+# # ("t"# !'5 *& &#r'*& Bnt! $ Bn #!t ( 7or &r&&$ n #7" Bn &nt" Bnt & &(# "("$ #6o& ! 7&nt"(" 6ro6o0&+&&(" *& r#0"("$

!& Bnt & #7" !on*t&&n+# tot#(&t'+&& #!t ( &$ d&r"!+& n"# 7or &r&&

n #& r" ("!t nd Bn r ' # n%" (# !on*t&&n+# ! 7&nt"(or *& #



L E C Ţ I A W II-#

&(# "(or$ tot # t "( Bn % nd&r"# (o%&!'$ d" (# 6r& # # &r #r" !" #!"#7" !on*t&&n+# d&r"!+& n&& Bn 6r" !#r" !on!( 0&" 7o& ' # n%"d"(# 6r& # # &r #r"$ n #*t"6t' !# &"!#r" d"!#t' ' " #*"0" 6" o #0' (o%&!' *& #6o& ' "r%" #& d"6#rt"$ !& d"(# 6r& # d"!#t'#7" Bn &nt" Bn('n+ &r"# #!" t"& d"!'+& ! r" t ( #!"(or# !#r" # '7&n'$ #7" ! n ! 7 nt d&r"!+&# Bntr"% ( & r#+&on# "nt. D" #!""#$

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L E C Ţ I A W II-#

d&r"!+& n"# tot#(' # % nd&r&& (o%&!".



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6#+& $ r"(#+& n&(" d" t& 6$ r"(#+& n&(" (o%&!"$ r"(#+& n&(" r"(#+& n&(" od#("@1 @@ @3<. P"nno Erd- #nn %' "*t"$ Bn tr#t#r"# #!" t"&! " t& n&$ o!#0& n"# d" # #nt&!&6# !(# & &!#r"# !o 6("t' # o &"!t"(o!#r" " o! 6' to#t" *t&&n+"(" 6"!&#(": o &"!t" d" 6r& # *& d" # do # ord&!(# & &!#r"# o &"!t"(or % nd&r&&$ d 6' or&%&n"$ d 6' 6ro6r&"t'+&(" *(or$ "t!.$ Bn r*&t o "n "r#r" !o 6("t' d" tot !" !on t&t &" o &"!t d"*t&&n+' <$ "n "r#r" !#r" 6r" 6 n"$ "7&d"nt$ *t&&n+# t& 6 ( & ! noD" # " "n"#$ Bn #n #( ( d" Lo%&!' # ( & . ndt$ 6#r#%r# ( !#rtr#t"#0' d" 6r" !#t"%or&&(" (o%&!"$ " # (' Bn*&r#t" to#t" Bntr" &n+'r&!#r" ("-# %' &t d"!#t# Bn do nd&r"# r"0 (t#t"(or #!t #(" #(" *t&&n+"@4<$!#r" d" #(t &nt"r& # o t %' &t" d" S&%]#rt.

C &#r (o%&!&"n&&$ !#r" " 6 n 6" n t"r"n ! d" '7 r*&r" " 6&r& t$! &#r (o%&!&"n&&$ !#r" n #!ord' &n+&& o "n"*t& 7r"o n!+& n" #r"d !$ Bn !on "!&n+'$ or& *& !" "( d" r#+&on# "nt (# o "r- 7#+& n""F6"r&"n+# & + r&(or$ ! " t" n'o#r' . St. M&(($ ! &#r *& #!"*t&#

&(&+& ' " o! 6" d" ( !r r&(" 6" !#r" d"!#t# (o%&!' (" %' "*t" Bn#&nt"n "r nd -(" 6" ! t " 6o#t" d" !o 6("t$ &#r Bn #!"# t' "n "r#r" "& n

#! d"! t ' t# &("# !' !#6&t#( ( *t&&n+& &! d"(# !#r" 6orn" ! *& 6" !#r" 6&"rd n&!&od#t' d&n 7"d"r"<.

@1Q) 7ermann 0o%ien, Logik der reineri Erkennlniss. Ber%in, 19=2, p. GJ.@@)06ris op6 FigCar , Logik. :rei&urg, i. B., 1889, I, p. A=.@3)Benno Erdmann, Logik, 7a%%e a. F. 1892, I, p. AJ—11J.@4)<i%6e%m <und , Logik, 19=@, I, p. 11=.) Qo6n F uar ?i%%, "# stime de Logi9ue ( rad. +eisso, +aris, 18>>), H, p.?@şi urm.



L E C Ţ I A W III-#

26. C #r & ! 6 t&n+'$ d" #(t &nt"r&$ !# # tor&& d" Lo%&!' ' n" #!'# Bn+"("%" o6"r#+& n"# d"!'+&&$ 'r' *' r"! r%' (# "F" 6("5 *& d" nd" #r 6 t"# "& ' &# #!" t" "F" 6("$ d#!' n d&n ond ( *t&&n+& &! !on t&t &t d&n#&nt" CUM XNŢELEGEM METODOLOGIA ŞTIINŢELOR. ) Cr"-*t"r"# 6" !#r" o !on t#t' (# *t&&n+' n " t" r"0 (t#t ( #t t #( Bn (+&r&&! no*t&n+"(or$ ! t #( 7#r&#+&"& "tod"(or 6r&n !#r" " & t" #t&0"#0' #!" t

! no*t&n+". I#r 7#r&"t#t"# "tod"(or " t" d#tor&t' 7#r&"t'+&& d" r"(#+&& 6" !#r"(" Bntr"7"d" &nt"# &n7"nt&7' # o ( & d" *t&&n+'. R"(#+&&(" 6" !#r" &nt"##!" t &# 6o#t" ' (" Bntr"7#d' Bntr" 6ro6r&"t'+&("$ # o "nt"(" d"

!!" & n" #(" o &"!t"(or n#t r&& nt n"(& &t#t d" 7#r&#t". D#!' 7"! &&o# "n& d" *t&&n+' " 'r%&n"# (# r"(#+&&(" d" #r" *& d" &n "r"n+!"& no& # 6r" "r&n+" 6"ntr r"(#+&&(" d" d"6"nd"n+'. Ş& Bntr" #!"*t&#$ n&#r'*& " 'r%&n" ! (# d"6"nd"n+"(" Bn ord&n" d&r"!t'$ d"(# !# 0' (# " "!t5#(+&& d& 6otr&7' #! n (o! d&n !" Bn !" #& #r" d"6"nd"n+"(or Bn ord&n"&n7"r '$ d"(# " "!t (# !# 0'. Un&& nt !# 0#(&*t&$ #(+&& &n#(&*t&. C

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L E C Ţ I A W III-#

#7 t "6o!"$ Bn !#r" "tod# # 6r&n-!&6#(' "r# d"d !+& n"# *& # #7 t *& #(t" "6o!"$ Bn !#r" "tod# 6r&n!&6#(' "r#&nd !+& n"#5 ! t"7# ! &#r$ ! " t" =&0&!# *& M"!#n&!#$ # '! t !&!(!o 6("t$ #d&!' # o t od#t' d"d !t&7" #6o& &nd !t&7" *& Bn r ' &#r'*&d"d !t&7"$ d 6' ! 6ro%r" "(" (or # #7or&0#t #& (t o "tod' ##(t#. ,r&n r #r" !r"*t"r"# *t&&n+"& & 6(&!' *& "7o( +&# "tod"(or d"

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&n% r# 6ro6r&"t#t" d" # ( &n#. A! !on t#t$ !' Bn to#t" !#0 r&("( &n#r"# 6r# "+"& !#d" ! 6or&r"# d& t#n+"& d&ntr" 6r# #+' *& &d" ( &n'. I#t' d#r o r"(#+& n" !#(&t#t&7'. A!" t# " t" 6r& ( 6# #( *t&&n+"D#r #r 6 t"# !# 6ro6r&"t'+&(" 6" !#r" ("-# #7 t Bn 7"d"r" ' &" n 'r#t"*& ' r#t" 2#d&!' ' &" d"6"nd"n+" !#nt&t#t&7" d" !# 0#(&t#t"<. o& 0&#t n!& !' ( &n#r"# n"& 6r# "+" r' n" "%#('$ ! nd o! & ( " nd& t&n%" 7r"o od& &!#r" # "&. o& #& 0&!" #6o&$ !' do ' &07o#r" d" (nt "%#("$ d#!' 6rod ! #!"(#*& " "!t d" ( &n' 6" 6r# #+'. In r*&t$ 7o0&!" !' ( &n# 6r# "+"& 7# & d (' d#!' &07or ( " d ("#0'$ "t!. Gr#+&#!" tor !on t#t'r&$ !#r" nt Bn #!ord 6"r "!t ! #6t"("$ 7o& 6 t"# 0&!"$ !'o ( n#r" "! &7#("#0' !n &n "!t" ( !&to#r"$ #!""# !" n 7# Bn " n# !'

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1=2 C. R. MOTRU: LECŢII DE LOGICĂ

CELE TREI STĂRI IN E OLUŢIA ORICĂREI ŞTIINŢE$ DU,Ă A.COMTE. Z)Y D#r Bn#&nt"# #7#n+&(or od"rn&$ #!"(# !#r" *&-# d#t &n

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n#t r# #$ Bntr" &n+"#0' !!" &7$ Bn &"!#r" d&n !"r!"t'r&(" #("$"tod" d" # &(o o #$ #( !'ror !#r#!t"r " t" " "n+&#( "nt" d& "r&t *& ! &

o6 Bntr" "(": n(#& Bnt & "tod# t"o(o%&!'$ #6o& "tod# "t# &0&!' *&r*&t "tod# 6o0&t&7'?... In t#r"# t"o(o%&!'$ 6&r&t ( o "n" !

Bndr"#6t' #t"n+& n"# 6r" n#t r# &nt& ' # ( !r r&(or 6" !#r" o 6 n" Bn("%'t r' ! "F& t"n+# nor &&n+" 6r#n#t r#("5 Bn t#r"# "t# &0&!'$)d" #(t &ntr"(& n " t" d"! t o od& &!#r" # !"(or d&nt &$ &&n

6r#n#t r#(" nt Bn(o! &t" ! or+" # tr#!t"$ #d"7'r#t" "nt&t'+& &n"r"( !r r&(or5 Bn r*&t$ Bn t#r"# 6o0&t&7'$ 6&r&t ( o "n" !$ r"! n& 6o & &(&t#t"# d"# ! no#*t" n#t r# &nt& ' # ( !r r&(or$ "- Bndr"#6t' d" !o6"r&r"# r"(#+& n&(or &n7#r&# &(" d" !!" & n" *& d" & (t'n"

#6t"(or d&n n#t r'@<.C#r#!t"r&0#r"# 6" !#r" o d' A % t" Co t" 6&r&t ( & *t&&n+& &!

6 t" B 6'rt'*& 6" d"#ntr"% ($ d#r n " #& 6 +&n dr"6t ' r"! no#*t""r&t ( ( & d" # & Bntr"7'0 t$ 6r&n t"or&# !"(or tr"& t'r&$ o Bn+"("

#d n!' # "todo(o%&"& *t&&n+& &!". Gr"*#(# ( & A %. Co t" t'$ #& B# " t"! ( 6" !#r" B( #!" Bntr" ord&n"# "todo(o%&!' # *t&&n+"(or *& ord&& tor&!' # ! (t r&& o "n"*t&. E( 7or "*t"$ Bn 6r& # t#r" # *t&&n+"&$ d

6r#n#t r#("$ ! nd n #r tr" & ' 7or "# !' d"! t d" "tod# 6" !#r" o%' & Bn "nt#(&t#t"# o ( & 6r& &t&75 !'!& d#!' o ( 6r& &t&7 B*& ( !r r&(" 6r&n # tor ( &&n+"(or 6r#n#t r#("$ #!"# t# " t" "! nd#r Bn '*& "tod# !#r" B( #d !" (# 6o t (#r"# nor # " "n"# &&n+". In #( do&r nd$ %r"*#(# ( & A. Co t" t' Bn n&(#t"r#(&t#t"# ! !#r" "( d" &n"*t" t#d" # tr"&# # 6&r&t ( & *t&&n+& &!$ #d&!' #0# 6o0&t&7'. A*#$ ! #d n ($ Bn t#r"# 6o0&t&7' n #r %' & d"! t *t&&n+"(" !#r" #r o!



METODOLOGIA 1 3

"no "n"(" n#t r&&$ &#r n *& *t&&n+"(" !#r& #r o! 6# d" o &"!t"(" nC to#t' !r&t&!# Bn '$ !#r" & #r 6 t"# #!"$ n " t" #& 6 +&n #d"7'r#tA %. Co t" " t" Bntr" !"& d&nt &$ d#!' n !"( d&nt &$ !#r" # Bn+"(" $

"tod"(" *t&&n+& &!" n nt !# n&*t" t&6#r" o#rt" !#r" " #6(&! no*t&n+"(or *t&&n+& &!"$ !& nt t"nd&n+" 7&& Bn 6&r&t ( o"7o( +&# (or Bnto7'r'*"*t" tr'd &n+# !ont&n ' # o ( & 6"ntr # # n%"#d"7'r *& !' d&n #!"# t' !# 0' n " 6o#t" #!" n t d& # 6r# "tod"(or *t&&n+& &!"$ 'r' ' " #& ' Bn 7"d"r" *& & tor&# *t&&n+"(or Bn '*&.



D#!' *t&&n+# o "n"# !' #r & # n ' I# o & t" #t&0#r" d" '7 r*&t'$ #*# !' (or&*&!" # &r #+& n" # no# tr' ' n" 6 t" r" "r& (# #d"7'r r& &% r" 6r& &t" d" to+&$ #t n!& n"%r"*&t 6ro (" # "todo(o%&"& n #r #& 6r"0%r" t'+&. M"tod"(" d" !"r!"t#r" *& d" t# &(&r" # !""# !" " t" (o%&!$ Bnd"o " &r" d" n"(o%&!$ #r & *& "(" & t" #t&0#t"$ d#!' n ! &#r r"d "

&n% r' "tod' nd# "nt#('5 !'!& *t&&n+# & t" #t&0#t' d" '7 r*&tn"6 t nd & d"! t n# &n% r'$ #r "(& &n# or&!" !on (&!t Bntr" "todŞt&&n+# o "n"# !' Bn ' n " t" d" '7 r*&t' !# & t" #t&0#r"5 "# n " 6r"0&nt' Bntr n &n% r & t" $ !& Bn #& (t"$ d 6' d& "r&t"(" o &!#r" "# " #6(&!'. D" #!""# Bn *t&&n+# no# tr'd" # t'0&$ !on (&!t ( d&ntr

"tod" " t" 6o & &($ "( " t" ! &#r &nd& 6"n # &( 6"ntr 6ro%r" ( *t&Bn '*&. No&$ !"& d" # t'0&$ 7or & d" d& "r&t" "tod"$ &&nd!' *& *t&&d& "r&t' d 6' 6"!&#(&t#t"$ Bntr n 7&&tor d"6'rt#t Bn '$ ! nd to#! no*t&n+"(" *t&&n+& &!" 7or & d& 6 " Bntr o n&t#t" 6"r "!t'$ #!"&

#!" Lo%&!'$ 7or 7or & d" nor "(" n"& &n% r" "tod" *& #n " # "tod"& 6r&n !#r" # # n (# n&t#t"# *t&&n+"&. D#r #!"# t# n" d !" Bn do "n

to6&"&$ &&nd!' (# !#6't ( 6ro%r" ( & *t&&n+& &! n 7o # n%" 7r"o

27. ,OSTULATELE METODOLOGIEI. ) C to#t" !' *t&&n+#no# tr' d" # t'0& n " t" d" '7 r*&t & t" #t&0#t'$ #d&!' n " t" n & t"

n&t#r d" #d"7'r r&$ no& tot *& #7" !r"d&n+# !' *t&&n+# d" # t'0& "r%" #!"# t' & t" #t&0#r" d" '7 r*&t'$ *& !on "!7"n+& #!" t"& !r"d&n+"$ t#dr"6t 6o t (#t" #(" M"todo(o%&"&$ 6r&n!&6&&(" !#r" Bn d" 7o(t#r"# d" 6#! # *t&&n+"& # !ond&+&on#t Bn od 6"r #n"nt 7"r& &!#r"# r"(#+&&(o!on t&t &r&& "F6"r&"n+&& *t&&n+& &!". In Lo%&!# 7"! " #!" t" 6r&n 6 " 6" "# # "(" "nt ( & or #( #( d"!'+&& (o%&!" *& n&!&d"!

"# # "(" "nt ( & " 6&r&!5 !""# !" "r# d" &% r o # &r #r" #r &tr#r'.,o t (#t"(" d" !#r" 7o 7or & nt !ond&+&&(" nd# "nt#("$ 'r'r" 6"!t#r"# !'ror# n&!& n #!t d" ! no*t&n+' n " t" 6o & &(: &nt &+&# ( !r $ !# *& # &nt&r"# d" 6r" &nt &+&# n & ( !r 5 Bn+"(" ( n & ! 7#t t #& (t !o n&!#r"# n & ! 7 nt$ "t!.5 n& &! n " 6o#t" r"#(&0# B

&nt"# o ( &$ 'r' !# #!" t" 6o t (#t" ' &" r" 6"!t#t". E("nt6o t (#t"(" "F6"r&"n+"& Bn %"n"r" *& n #(" r#+& n&& n #&. D" #!

n" 7o !on7&n%" d" Bnd#t' !" (" 7o ! no#*t" !on+&n t (.I#t' #!" t" 6o t (#t"$ #*# ! nt d#t" d" r"% (' Bn #n #("(" d"

Lo%&!'.



,RINCI,IUL IDENTITĂŢII. -) I. ,r&n!&6& ( &d"nt&t'+&&. ,r&n #!" t#7o& ' 0&!" : !' or&*&!" ! no*t&n+'$ od#t' d" &n&t'$ r' n" ! &n" Bn '&d"nt&!'$ Bn tot ! 6r&n ( & t" #t&0'r&& *t&&n+& &!". N"%r"*&t 6o t (#t " Bn+"("%"$ !' (# &d"nt&t#t"# 6" !#r" 7# tr" & ' o 6' tr"0! no*t&n+#$ 7# !or" 6 nd" *& &d"nt&t#t"# ! - &n" Bn '*& # o &"!t ( 6" !#r" B( r"6r"0&nt' ! no*t&n+#5 !'!& d#!' o &"!t ( r"#( n #r r' n"&d"nt&! ! &n" Bn *&$ #t n!& 6o t (#t ( &d"nt&t'+&&& 6 &n+&#r & 6"ntr #!"# t# d&n r ' #& (t o 6&"d&!' d"! t n 6r& &n5 #t n! no*t&n+# (o%&!'$ Bntr ! t #r r' n" !r"d&n!&o# ' 6r&n!&6& ( & &d"n

#& (t #r d"6'rt# d"! t #r !on or # r"#(&t'+&&. ,r&n!&6& ( &d"nt&d&n Lo%&!' & 6(&!'$ 6r&n r #r"$ n& or &t#t"# n#t r&&. No& !r"d"n#t r# r' n" Bn !on t&t +&# # #!""#*& *& d" #!""# !r"d" !' *&! no*t&n+"(" no# tr"$ d" &n&t" Bn #!ord ! n#t r#$ " 7or 6 t"# & t" #tBntr o *t&&n+' o &"!t&7'3<.

28. ,RINCI,IUL CONTRADICŢIEI ŞI NEGAŢIA. ) II. ,r&n!&6& (!ontr#d&!+&"&. A!" t 6r&n!&6& " t" o !o 6("t#r" # 6r&n!&6& ( & &d"no !o 6("t#r"$ n o & 6(' r"6"t#r" # #!" t &# o #(t' or '$ 6r"! "

+&n" Bn (t" #n #(" d" Lo%&!'4<. ,r&n!&6& ( !ontr#d&!+&"& ! 6r&nd" od"t"r &n#r" #& (t *& #n ": Bntr o n&t#t" (o%&!'$ o ! no*t&n+' nn #& !' tr" &" ' r' n' &d"nt&!' ! &n" Bn '*&$ d#r n 6o#t" t# #('t r&! n"%#+&# "&. A *& -A 2#d&!' A *& NU A< n 6ot & B 6r" n#t" Bntr

n&t#r d" % nd&r". ,r&n!&6& ( !ontr#d&!+&"& & 6(&!' d#r &nt &+&# >Bntr n od #& 6r"!& $ d"! t o #!" 6r&n!&6& ( &d"nt&t'+&&. ," #0d"t"r &n'r&(" (o%&!" &# n !#r#!t"r n&t#r.

D&n ("%'t r# #6o& 6" !#r" o #r" 6r&n!&6& ( !ontr#d&!+&"& ! &nt &n&t'+&&?$ r"0 (t' *& 7#(&d&t#t"# n & 6r&n!&6& !oro(#r ! #!"

!ontr#d&!+&"&$ #n " !': Bndo&t# n"%#+&" #!" o # &r #+&" 2d 6("F n# &r #t<. C'!&$ d#!' n #r & !on!"6 t' Bn(' ntr ( n"& n&t'+& d" % ndBndo&t# n"%#+&" n #r 6 t"# d !" (# n r"0 (t#t 6o0&t&7.



Contr#d&!+&# " t" d"o " &t' d" & 6(# n"%#+&". N"%#+&# n #r" n"7o&" n&t#t" d" & t" # d" o n&t#t" &nt &t&7'. C nd 0&!5 ( ( n "

#( # tr $ n"%#r"# 6r"d&!#t ( & #( # tr n #d !" d 6' &n" # &r #r"# n#(t 6r"d&!#t$ # # n"& #(t" %r 6" d" 6r"d&!#t". D#!' n " t" #( # tr $ "( 6o#t" & 7"rd"$ %#( "n$ ro* $ 7&o("t$ "t!. O d"t"r &n#r" (o%&!' 6r"!& ' n

r "#0' n"%#+&"&$ !& r "#0' n #& o d"t"r &n#r" 6 & o(o%&!'$ 'r'!on "!&n+" 6"ntr Şt&&n+'. N"%#+&#$ !# d"t"r &n#r"$ " d" &n"*t" d#(t &ntr"(& ! %r" d&n !# 0# &n t# &(&t'+&& 6" !#r" B( #r" Bn+"(" ( "&S ( ( n " t" #( # tr $ r"6r"0&nt' n "( d" n"%#+&"5 ,"tr n " t"

(+ &t$ #(t "( d" n"%#+&"5 n "r"(" r#+&on#(" 0"ro n nt 6o0&t&! tot ( #(t "( d" n"%#+&"Q InM#t" #t&!' n"%#+&# &nd&!' o ! & #r" dd&r"!+&"$ *& (# ' o6"r#+&# !#(! ( ( & Bn to#t' 7o&#5 n "r&(" n"%#t&7" &!#(! ( tot #*# d" &n" !# n "r"(" 6o0&t&7". D" # " "n& Bntr" (+ &t *&n" (+ &t5 o &( *& & o &(5 'n'to *& n" 'n'to $ "t!. n"%#+&# " t"

(t d" ord&n %r# #t&!#(. N" (+ &t ($ & o &( ($ n" 'n'to ($ "t!. nt 6r"d&!#t" 6o0&t&7" !# *& (+ &t ($ o &( ($ 'n'to ($ "t!. N"%#+&# "#t&t d&n" 6 & o(o%&!'. E# d"7&n" o !#t"%or&" (o%&!'$ d&n o "nt ( ! 6r"d&!#t"(" # 6r# !'ror# "# " #6(&!'$ or "#0' Bntr" "(" n & t" n&t#r.At n!& n"%#+&# n & 6r"d&!#t & 6(&!' Bn &n" o d"t"r &n#r" 6r"!& ' !# 6o#t" "r7& *t&&n+"&$ #*# ! !"r" 6r&n!&6& ( !ontr#d&!+&"&.

29. ,RINCI,IUL EWCLUS IUN IITERŢIULUI. ) ,r&n!&6& ( "F-!( d"r&& n"& # tr"&# # &r 'r& Bntr" do ' #(t"(" !#r" " !ontr#0&! # 6r##!"( &#*& ( !r $ > ,r&n!&6& "F!( *& t"rt&&?. A!" t 6r&n!&6& 6r" 6!"(" do ' 6r"!"d"nt"$ #( &d"nt&t'+&& *& #( !ontr#d&!+&"&$ d#r Bn #!"(#*& t&!o 6("t"#0' ! o d"t"r &n#r" no ' *& #n ": ! #!""# # !ont&n &t'+&&#!t ( & d" % nd&r". Intr ! t &nt"# o "n"# !'$ 0&!" #!" t 6r&n!&6& $ Br"6r"0&nt' o &"!t"(" r"#("$ !# n&*t" n&t'+&$ Bn(' ntr ( !'ror# n& &! n !#6'#t"n+& n&&$ #d&!' Bntr ! t #!""# !" " t" ! 6r&n Bn n&t#t"# o &"!t (d" 7'( " !# o !ont&n &t#t" 6"r "!t'$ Bntr #t t &nt"# o "n"# !' " t"!on tr n ' ' !on! &d'$ !' Bntr" do ' # &r 'r& !ontr#d&!tor&&$ '! t" # 6r##!"( &#*& o &"!t$ n 6o#t" ' #& &" (o! *& 6"ntr o # tr"&#. A *& -A n 6

& # "(" #( "$ # d#!' n# " t" #( '$ #d"7'r#t# tr" &" ' r' n'!"#(#(t'$ &&nd!' &nt"# !#r" B*& r"6r"0&nt' !on+&n t ( n&t'+&& o &"!tr"#( Bntr o !ont&n &t#t" 6"r "!t'$ n 6o#t" ' 7#d' ! Bntr" A *& NU A 6o#t" & (o! 6"ntr o # tr"&# # &r #r". A!" t 6r&n!&6& #( "F!( & nt"r+& ( & " t"$ 6r&n r #r"$ #& o%#t Bn d"t"r &n'r& d"! t !"("(#(t" do 6r&n!&6&& *& d&n #!"# t' !# 0' n&& &(o o & B& d# o & 6ort#n+'



6"ntr M"todo(o%&"<.





Ş& 6r&n!&6& ( r#+& n&& &!&"nt"$ ! to#t' d"n &r"# ( &$ n&!& "( tr'&n d" "F6"r&"n+# & + r&(or. In #!" t 6r&n!&6& $ t"r "n ( d" r#+& n" #

Bn+"(" ( d" !on tr n%"r"$ d#r n n #& d" !on tr n%"r" 6"ntr # 6 n"! no*t&n+"(" Bntr o ord&n" *t&&n+& &!'$ !& *& d" !on tr n%"r" (# Bntr"d#t"(or " 6&r&!" Bntr o n&t#t" 6 & o(o%&!'. A!""# !" n " ("#%' n&t#r n

" 6' tr"#0' Bn &nt". ,r&n!&6& ( r#+& n&& &!&"nt" B 6&n%" &nt"#!# t" (' r&r&. C' &nt"# # n%" Bn #!" t !o6 ' or ("0" ("%& !# 0#("$*& n " (+ "*t" ! !r"d&n+"(" d" #%&"$ !# (# '( #t"!$ #!"# t# n 7&n"d&n 6r&n!&6& ( r#+& n&& &!&"nt"$ !& d&n "d !#+&# *t&&n+& &!'! *t&%' tr"6t#t ! 7r" "#. ,r&n!&6& ( r#+& n&& &!&"nt" t' (# o r*"F6"r&"n+&&. E( #6#r+&n" !# !"("(#(t" 6r&n!&6&& #t t % nd&r&& 6 & o(o%% nd&r&& (o%&!".@8 @

@8Q) Edmond Bou D, La &erite scienti)i9ue, sa %oursuite. +aris, :%ammarion, 19=8,p. 22.

) #ugus e 0om e,$ours de %hiloso%hie %ositi&e. +aris. Edi ia I a, 18JJ, p. 8 şiurm.

) <. <und , Logik, I, A e #u$%age, p. @@2.@ +. Na orp, Die logischen Grundlagen der e6aktcn <issenscha ten. ;eip*ig,

Ber%in, 191=.>) #. Fc6open6auer, Die <elt als <ille und !orslellung. oi. II, 0ap. 9.



L E C Ţ I A W(W-#

30. CLASI=ICAREA ŞI DE=INIŢIA NOŢIUNILOR LA PA AXM,ĂRŢIRII METODELOR DIN ŞTIINŢELE S,ECIALE. ) M"tod##t rn' d" o &"!t ( 6" !#r" &"!#r" *t&&n+' B( #r" d" t d&#t. O &"!t ( n"*t&&n+": &" ord&n"# n "r&!' # 6#+&#('$ &" 6ro6r&"t'+&(" &0&! & &!"$ &" 7&#+# or%#n& "(or #t"r&#(" # ("t"*t&$ "t!. 6"ntr od" *t&&n+' d&n t& 6 ( no tr $ n or "#0' n #t"r&#( &n or $ # o & 6o & &(&t#t"$ ! !r"d"# Ar& tot"($ !& "( " 6r"0&nt' Bntr n & t" no+& n&$ Bn n' 6#rt" !(# & &!#t" *& d" &n&t". =&0&!&#n ( !#r" !"r!

"no "n"(" o6t&!"$ n Bn!"6" 6r&n # d& & !#r" nt Bn n#t r' "no "n"("o6t&!"$ Bn d& "r"n+' d" #(t" "no "n" &0&!"$ !& #r" "no "n"(" o6t&!"!(# & &!#t" *& d" &n&t" *& !"r!"t#r"# ( & "r%" #& d"6#rt"$ #6(&!

"tod"(" 6"!&#(&t'+&& #(". Tot # t "( *& !"&(#(+& &0&!&"n&$ !#r"!"r!"t#t #(t" "no "n" &0&!". O &"!t ( &"!'r"& *t&&n+" 6"!&#(" " t" # t

&F#t 6r&n 6ro!" ( # tr#!+&"&$ 6orn&t d&n tr"! t *& !on &r #t 6"F6"r&"n+# #!"(or# !#r" (-# t d&#t. Şt&&n+# " t" o n!' Bn !ont&n #r". In!" !on & t' n "no "n &0&!$ ! & &!$ &o(o%&!$ 6 & o(o%&!$ o!&o(oBn Bn '+&*#r"# ( & 6ro6r&"$ !&n" 6o#t" *t& =&"!#r" "no "n #( n#t r&Bn '+&*#r"# ( & 6ro6r&"$ " t" n&!: #r" (o! ( *& t& 6 ( ' 5 #r" &nt 6#rt&! (#r' # o ( & !#r" (-# 6r&n Bn !on*t&&n+# #. O &"!t d" *t&&n+' d"

"no "n ( n#t r&& n #& d 6' !" "( # & t&t ' &" d" &n&t Bntr o no+!#r" # 6r& &t n n " *& # 6 t t !o n&!#. C# no+& n"$ tr"!" d&n%"n"r#+&" Bn %"n"r#+&"$ !or"!t nd - " *& !o 6("t nd - "$ 6"ntr # oro &"!t d" *t&&n+' 6"ntr to#t' ( "#.

In #!"# t' no+& n" # "no "n ( & " %' " ! r"0 #t" Bn!"r!'r&("o# "n&(or d" *t&&n+' d&n tr"! t *& & 6(&!&t Bn "# " t" &nd&!#t' *& "tod#



L E C Ţ I A W(W-#

!#r" #r" ' " !ont&n " !"r!"t#r"# ( & Bn 6r"0"nt. D&n no+& n"# nd"(or d"( &n'$ 6rod !'to#r" d" ! (or&$ 6r"! *& d&n no+& n"# r"#!+& n&(or! & &!"$ 6ro7o!#t" d" n "t#($ "t!. o# "n&& d" *t&&n+' d&n tr"! t #"(& &n#t tot !" 6o#t" ' # &nt"# !' "no "n"(" d" " t"t&!' *& d" "nt& "nt$(' nd -(" !# "no "n" tr&!t o &"!t&7"5 n& "n& n 7# #& Bn!"r!# d" #!&Bn#&nt" ' t d&"0" "no "n"(" d" o6t&!'$ # " t"! nd Bn "(" !on &d"r#+&&" t"t&!"$ #*# ! '!"# #r"(" 6o"t Go"t "5 # ' t d&"0" r"#!+& n&("! & &!"$ +&n nd "# # d" Bn!(&n#+&&(" "nt& "nt#(" #*# ! '!"##(! & &*t&& d&n E7 ( M"d& $ =&0&!# *& C & &# B*& # "tod"(" (or "F6"r& "nt#(". Tot #*# *& ! !"("(#(t" o &"!t" d" *t&&n+'. ," #0# no+& n&(o(# !#r" # r&d&!#t ord&n"# n "r&!' *& 6#+&#('$ 7o #7"# 6"ntrM#t" #t&!' "tod" 6ro6r&&$ &#r 6" #0# no+& n&(or Bn !#r" nt d" &n&

"no "n"(" d" 7&#+' &o(o%&!' *& ("t"# !'$ 7o #7"# "tod" 6ro6r&& 6"ntr P&o(o%&"$ , & o(o%&"$ So!&o(o%&" *& Şt&&n+"(" & tor&!".

D" #!""# # 0& !' o &"!t ( n"& *t&&n+" ! 6r&nd" Bn &n" &nd&!#r"tod"& 6r&n !#r" r "#0' !# "( ' &" !"r!"t#t. Şt&&n+# d" # t'0& n -*&d" !o6"r' o &"!t ( !# 6" 7r" "# ( & Ar& tot"(5 o &"!t ( "& " t" d#t *&

B 6r" n' ! "( "tod# d" ( !r . Şt&&n+#$ !# or&!" #!t&7&t#t" ! (t r#('$ ""n+&n" 6r&n #(to&r"# n!&& !"(or d" # t'0& 6" n!# !"(or d&n tr"! t.



D#!' *t&&n+# o "n"# !' #r & # n ' (# o & t" #t&0#r" n&t#r' *d" '7 r*&t'$ #t n!&$ 6r&n Bn '*& #!"# t' & t" #t&0#r"$ no+& n&(" d" !* #r "r7&$ &&nd d" #!""#*& ord&n" d" !"rt&t d&n"$ n #r #& #7"# n"7o"!(# & &!" *& ' " d" &n"# !' 6r&n o6"r#+&& 6"!&#("5 !(# & &!#r"# *&(or #r & & 6(&!&t d#t" Bn !(# & &!#r"# *& d" &n&+&# 6" !#r" &"!#

6"!&#(' ("-#r #7"# Bn n&t#t"# tot#(' # *t&&n+"&. D#r d" o # " "n"#& t" #t&0#r" d" '7 r*&t' nt" Bn!' d"6#rt". Şt&&n+# d" !#r" d& 6 n" B

7r" "# no# tr' " t" d" 6'r+&t' Bn *t&&n+" 6"!&#("5 #!" t"# #7 nd &"!#ro &"!t"(" #(" d" t d&#t$ # 6r# !'ror# n!+& n&(" # tr#!+& n&&&0 t&t (# n"(" ' r&d&!" d"! t no+& n&$ n&!& &n" d" &n&t"$ n&!& !(# & &!#t". D" #!""# o6"r#+&&(" d" !(# & &!#r" *& d" d" &n&r" nt B0&("(" no# tr" d" o d"# ' Bntr" &n+#r". E(" nt o6"r#+&&("$ !#r" 6" d" 6#rt" 6r"%'t" ! #t"r&#( (*t&&n+& &!$ 6"ntr &no7#tor ( !#r" #r" ' d !' #d"6#rt" !"r!"t#r"# *t&&n+& &!' *& 6" d" #(t' 6#rt"$ or ("#0' 6"ntr #!"&! " #+& ' Bn7"+" ! no*t&n+"$ r"0 (t#t"(" *t&&n+"& d" 6 n' #!&. Ino7#toBn#&nt" d" #-*& Bn!"6" n!#$ tr" &" ' #& ' (& 6"d" Bn#&nt"# # #t"r&!" #r" d" !"r!"t#t. Un # tor 6"ntr #!"# t# %' "*t" "( Bn !(# & &!#r"# *&d" &n&r"# no+& n&(or$ &&nd!' #!" t"# r"0 ' r"(#+&&(" d" d"!#t' Bn!"d" #!"& !#r& (-# 6r"!"d#t. d"!#t# ( & #r" Bn #!" t" r"(#+&&$ & 6(&!#t"no+& n&$ %" t&& o(o &to#r". A tor ( 6" !#r" B( d# #!" t" r"(#+&& *& #& " &!#!" 6"ntr #!"(# !#r" 7r"# ' Bn7"+" ! no*t&n+"(" &n7"nt#t" d"#(+&&. ,"ntr #!" t# # tor ( " t" ! &#r ot'- rBtor. O no+& n" n " t" &Bn7'+#t'$ d"! t d#!' " t" &n" !(# & &!#t' *& d" &n&t'. In r*&t$ #t t 6&n7"nt#tor$ ! t *& 6"ntr #!"(# !#r" Bn7#+'$ #6(&!#r"# "tod"(or d"7"r& &!#r" # #d"7'r ( & tr" &" ' Bn!"#6' d"(# 7"r& &!#r"# !(# & &!'r&d" &n&r&& #t"r&#( ( & d" t d&#t.

D" &n&+&# 6r" 6 n" !(# & &!#r"# *& # ndo ' nt o6"r#+&&& (o!" ! # tr#!+&"& 6 n"r"# Bn ord&n" # !on+&n t ( & n"& no+

= n!+& n&(" # tr#!+&"&$ #n#(&0#$ &nt"0# *& !o 6#r#+&#$ nt ("t"*t& 6ont#n". Bn!"6 d&n 7&#+# !o6&( ( & *& " r"7#r ' Bn t

d&r"!+&&(". ,rod "(" (or nt &n t&(" Lo%&!"&$ ! t t& 6 n nt d&r&o #n &t' ord&n". In !r"#r"# #!" t"& ord&n"$ o6"r#+&&(" d" !(# & &!#r" *&d" &n&r" o#!' n ro( & 6ort#nt. E(" " #n& " t' Bn!"6 nd d&n tr !t r#(& # ( &. C(# & &!#r"# 6" !#r" o %' & Bn (& &(" t t ror 6o6o#r"(%"n # ! (&n$ " "n&n$ n" tr $ " t" tot #*# d" 7"! " ! *& or&%&n(& # ( &5 " t" Bn' ! t' #6ro#6" Bn !on*t&&n+# o "n"# !'. "! & nt #o (+& " d" d& "r"n+&"r& Bn !(# " d" o &"!t"$ d" 6ro6r&"t'+& *& d" #6!#r" (& # ( (" "F6r& ' %r# #t&!#( 6r&n !#0 r&$ 6r&n #d7"r "$ 6r&n %r



d" !o 6#r#+&" *& or " 7"r #("5 !(# & &!#r"# # o t d"(# or&%&n&nt"(&%"n+&& n n"!(&nt&t Bndr"6t#r 6"ntr n!+& n&(" # tr#!+&"&. S+&nt&t totd"# n# #n#(&0#$ &nt"0# *& !o 6#r#+&#.



In 6"r&o#d# 6r"*t&&n+& &!'$ o6"r#+&# d" !(# & &!#r" # o t !ond&*!'r&(" #t"n+&"&$ !#r" Bn 6r& "(" Bn!"6 t r& #(" 7&"+&& &nt"("!t #(" r nd ( (or !ond " d" " ot&7&t#t". In 6"r&o#d# *t&&n+& &!'$ o6"r#!(# & &!'r&& 6&"rd" Bn ' tr"6t#t !#r#!t"r ( 6 & o(o%&! 6"ntr # d"7"no6"r#+&" (o%&!'. Mo "nt ( tr#n or 'r&& "&$ Bn o6"r#+&" ! !#r#!t"r (o%" t" o "nt ( Bn !#r" !on*t&&n+# o "n"# !' # n%" '6r&nd' n&t#t"#d&ntr" o &"!t"(" 6" !#r" "# (" !(# & &!'. Con*t&&n+# n&t'+&& #d !" d 6' !on*t&&n+# d"6"nd"n+&& Bntr" 6'r+&(" n&t'+&&. In #!"# t' !on*t&&nd"6"nd"n+'$ 6r& ( Bn!"6 t B( #!" r"(#+&# d" ordon#r"$ d&r"!t r' 'r&t

d&n n!+&# #n#(&t&!' # # tr#!+&"&. E# " t" #!""# !#r" 6r"do &n' Bn!"6 t ( !"r!"t'r&(or *t&&n+& &!". C 6ro%r" ( #!" tor# Bn '$ (# r"(#+&ordon#r"$ " #d#o%' #!"("# d" !or"(#+&". D" #!& n#&nt"$ no&(" !(# & &

0&t#t" Bn *t&&n+' # 6r"t"n+&# d" # &ntr# #& #d n! Bn &r"# ( !r r&(orBn !on "!&n+' !# 6 n!t" d" !(# & &!#r" r"(#+&& d" d"6"nd"n+' !or"(#t" Bn(o! ( !"(or d" ordon#r". ,r&n !(# & &!#r"#$ 6" #0' d" !or"(#+&"$ o ( d"*t&&n+' n'0 "*t" ' d"# ("%"# d 6' !#r" !on+&n t ( no+& n"& # ( #t n#*t"rn & 6(# &"r#r &" d&ntr" "(" "nt"(" #!" t"&#. C(# & &!#r"# 6" %"n r

6"!&& " t" # t "( "n&t' ' &" !o 6("t#t'$ d#!' n ! &#r Bn(o! &t' 6r&n

!(# & &!#r"# %"n"t&!'.O6"r#+&# d" &n&+&"& " 6r& &n' 6" #!""# d" !(# & &!#r". In Lo%&! no ! t' &&nd n #& !(# & &!#r"# 6" #0' d" ordon#r"$ d" &n&+&r"d ' (# #r't#r"# %"n ( & 6r#ordon#t 2%"n 6ro- F& < *& 6"!&

ordon#t' 2d& "r"nt&# 6"!& &!#<. C ('r%&r"# or&0ont ( & !(# &tr" &" ' " ('r%"# !' *& or&0ont ( d" &n&+&"&. In d" &n&+&# n"&

r "#0' 6r&n r #r" ' 6r"0"nt' !on+&n t ( #!" t"&#$ n d 6' !"(" "nt"(" !on+&n t ( & 6ot & d& 6 " 6"ntr o Bn '+&*#r" #r'$ !& d! #!" t" "(" "nt" nt Bnr d&t" Bntr" "(" *& 6ot & !"r!"t#t" *& 7"r& &!# 6r&n #!"("#*& "tod". O n' d" &n&+&" #d !" o ( & &n7"nt#tor d" *t&& 6r"! *& #!"( &# !#r" Bn7#+' d"(# o ( d" *t&&n+'$ o #r" "!ono &" d"

n!'. O r"# d" &n&+&"$ d& 6otr&7'$ " t" o "# 0' d" r't'!&r". D" #!""# " *&&n & t' #*# d" (t Bn #n #("(" d" Lo%&!' # 6r# %r"*"(&(or d" d" &n&

#& (t d"! t ! &#r # 6r# r"% (&(or d" d" &n&+&".



METODOLOGIA 118

S nt #*# d#r do ' "( r& d" d" &n&+&&$ d 6' ! " t" *& "( ( !(# &!#r" "(" " Bnt" "&#0': d" &n&+&" > 6"r %"n 6roF& "t d& "r"n6"!& &!# ? *& d" &n&+&# %"n"t&!'5 n# & 6(' d" !r&6t&7'

"F6(&!#t&7'. In # #r' d" #!" t" do '$ #& 6 t" d"o " & d" &n&r"0 #t&7' d" ! no*t&n+" *& d" &n&+&# !r"#to#r" d" ! no*t&n+". ,rr"0 #t&7' d" ! no*t&n+"$ ! 6r&nd" "(" "nt"(" " "n+&#(" #(" !on+&n tno+& n&& Bn n 'r ( *& ord&n"# d#t' d" (t& "(" !"r!"t'r& *t&&n+&!#t"%or&# #!"# t# nt d" &n&+&&(" 6" !#r" (" Bnt (n& Bn !'r+&(" dn#t r#('. A do # d" &n&+&"$ !r"#to#r" d" ! no*t&n+" ! 6r&nd" "(" "n

!on+&n t ( & n"& no+& n& Bn n 'r ( *& ord&n"# !"r t' d" &6ot"0!r"d&n+# #!"( &# !#r" o 6ro6 n"$ *& !#r" &6ot"0' # !r"d&n+' #nt&!! no*t&n+" no&. In !#t"%or&# #!"# t# nt n"(" d" &n&+&& d&n M#t" #t&!"$ 6r"! *& n"(" d&n *t&&n+"(" r&d&!". > A on&#! ( "%#0 &n!o(or$ ! % t #r0'tor$ ! &ro Bn+"6'tor$ #& *or !# #"r ( *%r" t#t" o("! (#r' 1J ? " t" o d" &n&+&" r"0 #t&7'5 >n "r" 6r& " n "r"(" !#r" n " 6ot d&7&d" d"! t 6r&n "(" Bn '*& *& 6r&n n 'r ( n" t" o d" &n&+&" !r"#to#r". ,r& # r"0 ' ! no*t&n+"5 !"# d" # do # #nt&!! no*t&n+". In "( ( d" &n&+&&(or #t" #t&!" nt *& n"(" d" &

*t&&n+"(" r&d&!"- A t "($ d" &n&+&# 6ro6r&"t'+&& Bn dr"6t ( ro #"t # - t"nd&? " t" o d" &n&+&" !r"#to#r". P&n" Bn+"(" $ ! no*t&#nt&!&6#t" 6r&n d" &n&+&&(" r&d&!" n # !"rt&t d&n" "%#(' ! !!#r" d"! r% d&n d" &n&+&&(" #t" #t&!". Tot *& ("%& &tor ( !#r" d' r&d&!"$ !r"d" Bn ("%&t& &t#t"# #nt&!&6#+&&(or "n n+#t" d" d" &n&*& #t" #t&!&#n (. In r*&t$ # &nt& d" &n&+&# 6 r no &n#('$

'! t' 6" #0# "t& o(o%&"& ! 7 nt ( & 6r&n !#r" " "F6r& ' no+& n"#$ 0&t#t' (# n&& 6 (&!&*t&$ d#r !#r" n #r" n&!&o 7#(o#r"$ d&n 6 n!t d

(o%&!.

D 6' !(# & &!#r"# *& d" &n&+&# no+& n&(or *t&&n+& &!"$ +& 6r& ( r nd$ d" %r#d ( Bn !#r" # 6 t t "6#r#$ Bn !on+&n t ( (or$ ! r#t o &"!t&7" d" d#t"(" Bn !#r" &ntr' &"!t&7&t#t"# o "n"# !'$ 6"ntr

or # # t "( o "r&" d"(# #!""# !" " t" #& Bnd"6'rt#t 6 n' (# #!""# !" " t"#& ("%#t d" o $ 6 t" B 6'r+& "tod"(" Bn :

I. M"tod"(" M#t" #t&!"&.II. M"tod"(" "F6"r& "nt#(" #(" *t&&n+"(or !#r" " o! 6' ! "no "n"("

n#t r&& 2=&0&!#$ C & &#$ =&0&o(o%&#$ "t!.<.III. M"tod"(" d" o "r7#+& n" #(" *t&&n+"(or !#r" " o! 6' ! o &"!t"(

#nor%#n&!" *& or%#n& "(" n#t r&& 2 oo(o%&#$ Pot#n&!#$ GG"o%r# &#$ "t!.<.



11> C. R. MOTRU: LECŢII DE LOGICĂ

IV. M"tod"(" *t&&n+"(or or#(" *& & tor&!"$ !#r" # ' " o! 6" !"no "n"(" *& o &"!t"(" n#t r&& Bn !#r" &nt"r7&n" #!t&7&t#t"# ("t"#



Bn#&nt" d" #!" t" "tod"$ !#r" 6r&7" ! *t&&n+# d" # t'0&$ 7o t d&#"tod"(" Lo%&!"& 7"! & #r& tot"(&!"$ !#r" Bn 7r" "# (or "r# n&*t" "tod"

#d#6t#t" 6"ntr o &"!t ( M"t# &0&!"& ( & Ar& tot"( *& 6" !#r" n&& &(oBn!' *& # t'0&$ ' (" !on &d"r" !# n&*t" "tod" 6r&7&to#r" (# > or "(" ?% nd&r&& o "n"*t& Bn %"n"r".

34. LOGICA LUI ARISTOTEL IN LEGĂTURĂ CU META =I ICALUI. )Lo%&!# ( & Ar& tot"( 2 &(o o "(&n !#r" tr'&t Bntr" #n&&- .3 4)3@@C r.< n " 6o#t" &n" Bn+"("%"$ 'r' # " ! no#*t" M"t# &0&!# ( &$ *&

#(" 'r' # " ! no#*t" ro( ( 6" !#r" #!"# t' M"t# &0&!' (-# #7 t$ #+' d"!"("(#(t" & t" " &(o o &!" !ont& 6or#n"5 Bn 6"!&#( #+' d" !"6t&!&o &*t&(or *& d" &d"#(& ( ( & ,(#to.

S!"6t&!& ( o &*t&(or # tr"0&t % nd&r"# 6o6or ( & "(&n !# o d &t r' 6 t"rn&!' *& # 6ro7o!#t n &nt"r" 7& 6"ntr 6ro (" "(" &(o o &!"So &*t&& 2!"& #& Bn " n#+& d&ntr" "&: ,rot#%or# *& Gor%&# < # nr"0 (t#t ( !' *t&&n+# o "n"# !' n " nd"#0' 6" n& &! &% r$ d"o#r"!" "#

" nd"#0' 6" # &r #+& n&(" o# "n&(or$ &#r # &r #- +& n&(" o# "n&(o! & 'to#r" d"(# o (# o . > O ( " t" ' r# t t ror ( !r r&(or *& #

!"(or !" nt *& # !"(or !" n nt?$ 0&!"# ,rot#%or# . D#r ! $ # 6r##!"( &#* ( !r $ n o 6o#t" ' !ontr#0&!' 6" n #(t ($ #t n!& !" n" 6o#t"Bn!r"d&n+# 6" no& !' ( !r ( " t"$ # n " t" I#r Gor%&# #d#o%': ! &#d#!' #r "F& t# !"7#$ 6" #!" t !"7# no& n 6 t" '-( !o n&!' #(t &#$d"! t 6r&n 7or " *& 7or "(" nt$ !# *& !o(or&(" *& n"t"("$ d"(# o (# o! Bn+"(" d& "r&t. ,r&n r #r"$ o *t&&n+' &% r' n "F& t'.



Contr# #!" t & !"6t&!& " r&d&!' #& Bnt & So!r#t"$ !#r" 6 n" Bn "7o &"!t&7&t#t"# no+& n&(or # tr#!t". A 6r# # !""# !" Bn+"("%" !# dr"6t5 # 6r# # !""# !" Bn+"("%" !# o(o &tor # 6'% &tor$ "t!.$ no#6#r"n+' 6'r" # & ! &d"& d"o " &t" d"(# o (# o $ Bn ond Bn#7" # 6r# #!" tor ( !r r& &d"& # " 'n'to#r"$ &&nd!' d" 6r" #!"( !r r& n"-# or #t ! to+&& no+& n& !o n". D#!' d& ! t' # 6r# (od#!' #d !" Bn d& ! +&" "F" 6(" 6otr&7&t"$ !on t#t' #t n!& n #&d"!' to+& !'d" d" #!ord # 6r# Bn+"(" ( & 6" !#r" B( #r" #!""# !" " t"

# #!""# !" " t" dr"6t$ "t!.$ 6r&n r #r" "F& t' o #0' &% r' 6"ntr *t&&*& #n ": no+& n&(" %"n"r#(" d" 6r" ( !r r&$ 6" !#r& (" %' & &"

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#& o #0' &% r' 6"ntr *t&&n+'. A!"# t# " t" #*# 0& # #&" t&!# # ( &o "tod' 6" !#r" "( o #6(&!'$ "F!( &7 #6ro#6"$ 6"ntr do7"d&r"# #d"-7'r r&(or or#(".

,(#to$ d& !&6o( ( ( & So!r#t"$ #!" n 6# #& d"6#rt" *& n Bn " n#t 6"ntr Lo%&!'. ,"ntr # %' & o #0' 6"ntr *t&&n+'$ 0&!" ,(#tr" &" ' 6'r' & ! d" '7 r*&r" #6#r"n+# "n & &('$ !#r" " t" d( "# *& ' 6'tr nd" 6 n' (# r"#(&t#t"# o &"!t&7'$ #!""# !#r" r' n"7"*n&! #!"&#*&$ ! to#t" tr#n or 'r&(" 6" !#r" (" 7"d" Bn #+# no# tŞt&&n+# n " o! 6' d" #6#r"n+# &"!t&7'$ !& d" r"#( ( !#r" " t" #6#r"n+'. C# Bntr o 6"*t"r'$ Bntor ! 6#t"(" Bn 6r" "r" tr &# d&n 6r"7&n" ( &n#$ t' ! &nt"# # o ( *& 7"d" ! " 6ro&"!t"#0' 6" 6"r"t"(d&n #+' r# o &"!t"(or r"#("$ "F& t"nt" Bn # #r': o ( d" r nd

r"(" 6ro&"!t#t" dr"6t r"#(&t#t"# Bn '*&$ 6" ! nd o ( d" *t&&n+' r"!on t&t " r"#(&t#t"# ! # tor ( r#+& n"& d&n r"(" !#r& " 7'd.#6#r"n+# & + r&(or$ o #6#r"n+' !#r" ot&7"#0' 6'r"r& d"o " &t" d"(# oo $ t' r"#(&t#t"# n# *& #!"&#*&$ "t"rn' 6"ntr to+&. A!"# t' r"#(&!on & t'$ d 6' ,(#to$ Bn n "r" *& Bn &% r& %"o "tr&!"5 6roto# o( t"$ d 6' !#r" nt !o6&#t" ( !r r&(" d" 6" #+# 6' nt ( &. !ontr# t ! ( "# 6"r&to#r" # !o6&"r&(or$ t' ( "# "t"rn' # 6rotot&6 r&(oSo!r#t"$ 6r&n d&#(o% r& "*t"* %&t !ond "$ # # n (# d" !o6no+& n&(or !o n"$ 6" !#r" "( nd' #6o& nor "(" n"& *t&&n+" or,(#to$ ! # tor ( n"& #n#(&0" &n +&o# "$ # n " ' d" !o6"r"$ !# "(" "nt" r"#(" #(" ( !r r&(or *& d"!& !# #0' # or&*&!'r"& *t&&n+": n "r

&% r&(" %"o "tr&!"$ # &d"&("$ ! (" #& n "# "( ! n t"r "n %"



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t&(&0# " 6"ntr Bn+"("%"r"# #!" tor no+& n& d"! t o "r7#+& n"# &nt" 6 & o(o%&!' *& (' # " (# o 6#rt" & "n ( #t"r&#( 6" !#r" B( o "r"# (& #o "n" !$ !#r" Bn #!"# t' 6r&7&n+' " t" !# o !o o#r' d" no+& n&$ #*# !'

"tod# ( & So!r#t" n "r# #6(&!#t' 6" n o &"!t 6r"!& *& *or d" Bn+"(" 6"ntr to#t' ( "#. Ar& tot"($ Bn #!"# t' 6r&7&n+'$ B( !o 6("t"#0'. E( #r#t'$!' d& "r&t"(" 6'r+& d" ! 7 nt nt "Ft"r&or&0'r&(" 6ro!" ( & 6 & o(o%Bntr"7'0 t d" So!r#t"$ *& Bn 6r& ( r nd "( #r#t' &d"nt&t#t"# !" "F& t' Bntr"no+& n&(" ( !r r&(or *& 6r"d&!# "nt"("$ # d"t"r &n'r&(" t# &(&t" 6ro6o0&+&". C ! &6 ( #!" t# Ar& tot"( #*t"rn" *t&&n+"& o 6r& ' #07"r& &!#t' d" tr#d&+&": o &"!t&7&t#t"# !#t"%or&&(or %r# #t&!#(". D" # " "Ar& tot"( " t" Bn n&t#t" d" 7"d"r& ! ,(#to$ ! t t& 6 #!" t# d" on tr"#0'

o &*t&(or !' *t&&n+# n " o! 6' d" #6#r"n+"(" "n & &(&t'+&& & + r&tr" &" %' &t' 6"ntr *t&&n+' o #0' &% r'$ r#+&on#('$ d#r " d" 6#rt" d,(#to$ ! nd " t" 7or # ' t# &("# !' #!"# t' #0'. Ar& tot"($ 6&r&t #& 6r#!t&! d"! t ,(#to *& Bn!(&n#t !'tr" o "r7#r"# &n +&o# ' # n#t r&&$ n %' "*t" (+ &t ! # tr#!+& n&(" #t" #t&!" #(" ( & ,(#to. D"t"r &n'r&("

#t" #t&!"$ Bn #d"7'r$ nt 6r"# r"d " 6"ntr n 6&r&t o "r7#tor$ !"r# #!"(# #( ( & Ar& tot"(. A 0&!" !' " "n+# n & ( !r $ # # n & #n& #( n'o#r'$ r" &d' Bntr n n 'r$ # Bntr o &% r' %"o "tr&!'$ "r# #Bndr"6t# *t&&n+# 6" o !#(" & t&!'$ # #-& r&d&!#$ Bn tot !#0 ($ or&7#(o#r" 6r#!t&!'. Ar& tot"( d"6#rt" d" # n" o!ot& 7#(o#r"# no+& n&&$ !"r"#tot *& !# no+& n"# ' &" #& #6ro#6" d" r"#(&t#t"$ d" ! "r# &d"&(" (,(#to. D" #(t &ntr"(& *& So!r#t" 6' tr# " o ("%'t r' Bntr" no+& n" *& 7&#+# 6r#!t&!'$ ordon nd -(" 6" # ndo ' nor "(or or#(". Ar& tot"( n "B 6'!# #6o& ! ( "# tr#n !"nd"nt' Bn !#r" #*"0# ,(#to 6rotot&6 r&(" #("&d"#(". C " #!"$ o#r"$ tr"!"r"# d"(# #!"# t' ( " &d"#(' (# ( "#

"n & &(&t'+&& no# tr" C n "r"(" *& or "(" %"o "tr&!" 6ot r"6r"0"nt#*& "F6(&!# &*!#r"# *& #& #(" &n#(&t#t"# d&n n#t r' N " t" &n" o#r"

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"r%" #& d"6#rt" !# d n ( *& ' 7"d" Bn #!" t" no+& n&$ "Ft"r&or&0Bn (& # $ n&*t" #d"7'r#t" d"t"r &n'r& #(" r"#(&t'+&& Bn '*&. In # &r #!#r" o #!" $ . "F. !' > o ( " t" r&tor ?$ r&tor " t" n #t t ono+& n" %"n"r#(' !#r" " ("#%' d" r"6r"0"nt#r"# o ( &$ ! t " t" n 6r"d&!#t !#r" #d !" t#n+"& o ( &$ o d"t"r &n#r" r"#('$ d&n !#r" ""F!( ' or&*&!" &"!t&7&t#t". No+& n"# # tr#!t' " t" r#+& n"# d" #( !r r&(or$ !'!& Bn "# ( !r r&(" B*& %' " ! !(# # !#r" "(" " "*& Bn #!"(#*& t& 6 or # t&6&!' d"(# !#r" #6#r"n+# (or n " # #t". C"7# #

(t$ no+& n"# # tr#!t'$ 6 ' Bn #+# #t"r&"&$ !#6't' n "( d" t"nd&n+'

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or # ! t *& d"d !+&#$ ( # 6 t t #7"# (# Ar& tot"($ 6o#t" & Bn!' d&A!""# !" 6 t" ( # !# &% r$ " t" #t&t d&n"# ( & Ar& tot"( d" # !' t# B"(" "nt"(" or #(" #(" r#+& n&& or&%&n"# *& "tod# d" 7"r& &!#r#d"7'r ( &$ 6" !#r" n (" %' "# Bn "F6"r&"n+# & + r&(or.

1) 6eodor 3omper*, Griechische Denker, eine Geschichte der anliken



Philoso%hie, A oi. ;eip*ig, 19=A.



L E C Ţ I A W W- #

E. 3assirer, "u stan1 egri)) a. Funktions egri)), p. G (Ber%in, 191=).3.8.ADE ĂRUL =UNDAMENTAL IN META=I ICA LUI ARISTOTEL. Z )D#!' (' ' (# o 6#rt"$ d&n M"t# &0&!# ( & Ar& tot"($ tot !""# !" n #r" nr#6ort d&r"!t ! 6ro (" # ! no*t&n+"&$ #t n!& # n%" *or ' n"!on7&n%" !'-Bntr"#%# #!"# t' M"t# &0&!' 6r" 6 n" (# #0# # n #d"7'r

nd# "nt#($ ! !#r"$ d#!' #!" t #d"7'r #r & o t 6 (# Bndo&#('$ #r &n'r &t *& "# 6" d"#ntr"% (. A!" t #d"7'r nd# "nt#( " 6o#t" r"0 ## t "(: E(" "nt"(" &% r"$ 6" !#r" *t&&n+# o "n"# !' " 6o#t" r&d&!#$ nno+& n&(" # tr#!t" !o# " d&n !o 6#- r#+& n"# ( !r r&(or d" #!"&#*& !(#Bntr ! t #!" t"# ! 6r&nd Bn "(" o "nt"(" !o n" d&n 7#r&#t# r"6r"0"nt#r"# ( !r r&(or *& !on t&t " !$ Bn #!"(#*& t& 6$ or " t&6&!" !#r" ( !r r& 6ot #. A!" t" no+& n& # tr#!t"$ (' r"*t" #& d"6#rt" Ar& tot"($ n

nt #('t r& d" ( !r r&$ !& nt & #n"nt" Bn ( !r r& !# "nt"(" && !#rd"t"r &n' t#n+# #!" tor ( !r r&5 *& "(" n nt n&!& & 6(" !o6&& &nd 6' ( !r r&$ !& !"7# #& (t$ &&nd!' "(" nt Bn '*& r#+& n"# d" # #!" tor ( !r r&5 nt r"#(&t#t"# 6r# !'r"&# " nd"#0' *t&&n+#.A tr#!+& n"#$ # #& &n" 0& >Bn+"(" (? d" !(# ' " t" #*# d#r 6r& ( #d"7'r ! !#r" Bn!"6" Ar& tot"( *& 6" !#r" "( nd"#0' Bntr"#%#

# M"t# &0&!'. D" n#t r# #!" t & #d"7'r d"6&nd" *& Bntr"#%# # Lo%&!'$ 6r"! 7o 7"d"# Bnd#t'.

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IM,ORTANŢA APSTRACŢIEI I OLATE IN LOGICA

ARISTOTELICĂ. Y) In 6r& ( r nd$ &(o o ( !#r" d' o #*# d" #r"



L E C Ţ I A W W- #

& 6ort#n+' # tr#!+&"& Bn no+& n& &0o(#t"$ n 7# 6 n" (# #0# Lo%&!"&#6t "(" "nt#r$ #6t ( r#+&on# "nt ( &$ # #( d"!'+&& #*# ! !"r"

ord&n"# n#t r#(' # o6"r#+& n&(or &nt#(" *& ! #d &t$ Bn # or&t#t"&(o o && d" # t'0&. D"(# Bn!"6 t$ 7# & Bndr"6t#t 6" n dr !ontr#6&r&t ( & *t&&n+& &! od"rn. Xn#&nt" d" # # n%" (# &d!"# # tr#!t' d"

no& *t& !' &nt"# tr" &" ' !o 6#r" *& ' # tr#%' d&n (t&6("("Bn '+&*'r& #(" ( !r r&(or not"(" !o n"$ !#r" " r"0 ' #6o& Bn &d""5 tr" &"! n ! 7 nt$ !# &nt"# ' d"!"$ Bn#&nt" d" # " &F# Bn no+& n& 6r"!&# tr#!t". ,"ntr Ar& tot"( Bn '$ no+& n"# r"0 #to#r" # tr#!t' 7&n"Bn#&nt"# o6"r#+& n&& r#+&on# "nt ( &5 no+& n"# " & 6 n" !# od"($ B!" no& ' ! no#*t" (o! ( 6" !#r" "# B( o! 6' Bn d"!#t' *& r#+&on# "nt. In(o! d" # 0&!"$ !' &d""# " t" n 6rod r"0 #t&7 #( "tod"&r#+&on# "nt ( &$ Ar& tot"($ d& 6otr&7'$ &# r#+&on# "nt ( !# o B 6r" n#r"&d"&.

I#t' d#r o 6r& ' !#r#!t"r& t&!' # Lo%&!"& ( & Ar& tot"($ 6" !#r" o "F6(&!'M"t# &0&!# #!" t &#. Lo%&!# ( & Ar& tot"( " t" Bntr o d&r"!+&" ! tot ( Lo%&!"& !ont& 6or#n". ," ! nd #!"# t# d&n r ' d' r#+&on# "nt ( & (o! (!"ntr#( *& %r 6"#0' Bn r ( ( & t"or&# no+& n&(or # tr#!t"$ &0o(#t"$ Lo( & Ar& tot"( d' (o! ( !"ntr#( no+& n"& &0o(#t" *& B 6r" r ( "& %r 6"#0' to!"("(#(t" t"or&& #(" Lo%&!"&.



CONŢINUTUL ŞI S=ERA NOŢIUNEI. ) In d" &n&r"# no+& n&& %' &&#r'*& o #r" d"o " &r" d&ntr" Lo%&!# ( & Ar& tot"( *& Lo%&!# od"rnLo%&!# ( & Ar& tot"( d" &n"*t" no+& n"# d&n do ' 6 n!t" d" 7"d"r": 1< !#

' # o "nt"(or # not"(or !o n" !o# " d&n !o 6#r#+&# #&(tor r"6r"0"nt'r&$ #!""# !" #r !on t&t & !on+&n t ( no+& n"&5 *& @< !

Bnt&nd"r" # no+& n&& # 6r# d& "r&t"(or "F" 6(#r" # r"6r"0"nt'r&$ #!""!" #r !on t&t & "r# # "Ft"n & n"#$ 'r' ' n" d"# Bn ' n&!&o &nd&!#+&# 6r# r"% ("& d 6' !#r" 6ro!"d' (# #(!'t &r"# #!" t"& d" &n&+&&. D" !"#("%" #n &t" "(" "nt"$ !# not" !o n" *& n #(t"(" 5 d" !" &%nor'not"(" 6r&n !#r" r"6r"0"nt'r&(" " d& "r"n+&#0' ) #!" t" nt Bntr" 'r& 6"!#r" Ar& tot"(" n *& (" 6 n"$ d#r !#r& Bn *t&&n+# od"rn' nt !on &d"r#t"!# &&nd d" !"# #& #r" & 6ort#n+'. D 6' *t&&n+# od"rn' & 6ort#nt d"*t& t " t"$ n !#r& nt not"(" # o "nt"(" !o n" #d n#t"$ !& r"% (#2 " _ tod#< d 6' !#r" "(" nt #d n#t"$ !'!& #!"# t' r"% ('$ od#t'! no ! t'$ n 'r ( "(" "nt"(or d&n !on+&n t " "F6(&!' d" &n". Tot # t "(*& ! "r# # "Ft"n & n"#. ," ! t' 7r" " n *t& r"% (#$ d 6' !#r" no-+& n"# # o t !on t&t &t'$ "Ft&nd"r"# #!" t"&# (# d& "r&t" "F" 6(#r"$ #r"6r"0"nt'r&$ #6#r" !# n !" Bnt 6('tor *& 'r' 7r"o r#+& n" #t& '!'to#r" 6"ntr "F& t"n+# no+& n"& Bn '*&.

I 6"r "!+& n"# Lo%&!"& ( & Ar& tot"( " "F6(&!' 6" #0# M"t# &0&!"#!" t &#. Ar& tot"( # 6r" "r#t 6"ntr no+& n& d" &n&+&#$ !#r" "r7"*t"%r 6#r"# ( !r r&(or Bn !(# "5 ! d"o " &r" &d"&(" !#r" "r7" ! (#!(# & &!#r"# #n& #("(or$ Bn %"n r& 2!'!& Ar& tot"(" "r# *& n#t r#(& t< *Bn #!"(#*& t& 6 Bn(" n"# tr#n 6 n"r"# # tr#!+&"& Bn ro( ( d" or ' *&"nt"(" &" 6"ntr "F6(&!#r"# n#t r"&. No+& n&(" d&n Lo%&!# ( & Ar& tot"(r"d# d&n ! no*t&n+# n#t r"& #& (t d"! t r"d# *& no+& n&(" 6" !#r" ("%' & Bn %r# #t&!# n"& (& &. No+& n&(" Bn !#r" ' " r"0 " o r"%

# o ("%" # #6t"(or "F6"r&"n+&&$ "r# d"6#rt" d" M"t# &0&!# ( & Ar& t*& # r' # d"6#rt" *& d" Lo%&!# #!" t &#.



C "(" "nt" (o%&!" d" &n&t" Bn #!" t "($ " t" *or d" Bn+"(" 6"ntr !" BLo%&!# ( & Ar& tot"( r#6ort ( d" #r" o#!' n #*# d" #r" ro(5

6"ntr !" #!" t r#6ort " t" #6ro#6" n&! ( d" !#r" Lo%&!# #r& tot"(&!'$ +&n"# #. N&!& n #(t r#6ort (o%&! n #r" Bn " n't#t"# #!" t &#. In "( "

r"0 ' Bntr"#%# Lo%&!' #r& tot"(&!'@J<.L E C Ţ I A WWI-#

36. TRADIŢIA ARISTOTELICĂ IN LOGICĂ. ). Lo%&!# ( &Ar& tot"( # o t !ont&n #t# t& 6 d" #& (t" "!o(" d" *!o(&(" &(o o &"# " t" r"6r"0"nt#t' *& # t'0& Bn &*!#r"# &(o o &!' " ro6"#n'. C ! t n"

d"6'rt' Bn ' d" Ar& tot"($ "# n #& " t" Bn ("%'t r' d&r"!t' !M"t# &0&!# #!" t &#$ 6r"! "r# (# Bn!"6 t$ !& t&nd" ' d"7&n' o Lo%&n&7"r #('$ 6" !#r" &(o o ( o Bntr" &n+"#0' Bn 6r& &n ( or&

M"t# &0&!& # &(o o &&. E# # B 6'!#t$ ! d"o " &r"$ o#rt" t"o(o%&# "d&"7#(' *& ! &(o o &# r#+&on#(& t' # ( & L"& n&0 *& ##!" t &#. A t'0& #n #("(" d" Lo%&!' o tr"! d"n &r"#$ ! nd d" >Lo%&!' "(" "nt#r' ?$ ! nd d" > Lo%&!# or #(' ?$ Bn+"("% nd Bn# ndo ' !#0 r&("$ !' " t" n "( d" Lo%&!' # r#+& n&& 6 r"$ Bn d"o "d" M"todo(o%&# Lo%&!"&$ Bn !#r" " # Bn 7"d"r" "tod"(" *& & t"

*t&&n+"(or 6"!&#(". C #(t" ! 7&nt"$ o#rt# Lo%&!"& #r& tot"(&!" # od#t' d" 6'r+&t' d" #d"7'r r&(" nd# "nt#(" #(" M"t# &0&!"& #r& tot"(&!' 6(#n"0" !# o Lo%&!' # r#+& n&& Bn %"n"r"$ 'r' n&!& n o &"!t 6"!&

#6(&!#+&".o "F# &n#$ #& Bnt &$ !" ! 6r&nd" #!"# t' Lo%&!' "(" "nt#r'$ #

or #(' *& 6" r ' 7o 7"d"#$ d#!' 6r"t"n+& n&(" "& " 6ot +&n".

NOŢIUNEA. ) L# # tor&& !#r& " "n+&n #& (t Bn 6&r&t ( tr#d&+

@J) Erns 0assirer, "u stan1 egri)) und Funktions egri)). (Ber%in, 191=), p. A—A@0. 5"du'escu ?o ru, Elemente de 4eta)i1ic5, 1912, p. 91—11@.



Lo%&!# "(" "nt#r' # or #('$ r"6rod !" #6ro#6" "F#!t Lo%&!##r& tot"(&!'$ ! d& "r"n+# n #& !' # tor&& d" # t'0& 6 n *& "F" 6(" n 6" t" #!"("# d#t" d" Ar& tot"( *& #6o& B& #& #d#o%' n !#6&to( (# Bn!"d" 6r" r"6r"0"nt'r&(" 6 & o(o%&!" Bn d"o " &r" d"&d"&(" # no+&(o%&!"$ *& n #(t !#6&to( (# r*&t d" 6r" !r&t&!&(" #d " &(o%&7"! && Lo%&!& # ( & Ar& tot"( r' n nd Bn ' #!"(#*&@<. Lo! ( !"ntr#( B(o! 6' &d""# # tr#!t' 2no+& n"#<$ ( #t' !# n&t#t" d" ! no*t&n+' (o%&!' *d&n d" &n&+&# #!" t"& &d"& # tr#!t" r"0 (t' d" &n&+&# d"!'+

r#+&on# "nt ( &. No+& n"# " t" Bn+"(" ( n&t#r (o%&!$ 6" !#r" B( !d&n #& (t" r"6r"0"nt'r& d" o &"!t"$ 6r&n d" 6'r+&r"# # !""# !" " t"o "nt # not' !o n'. N"#7 nd Bn 7"d"r" n #n &t o &"!t *t&&n+& &!

d" &n&+&# no+& n"& " t" "(& "r#t' d" o (&%#+&# d" # " #!" d 6' n *t&&n+& &!$ *& &n% r ( !r&t"r& $ 6" !#r" d"*& d" &n&+&# n -1 &ntr" &" '-( Bn+"("%" $ " t" #!"(# !on t&t &t d&n 6o t (#t"(" Lo%26r&n!&6&&(" &d"nt&t'+&&$ !ontr#d&!+&"& *& t"r+ ( & "F!( <. Intr !

# not"(" !o n"$ !o# " d&n tot#( ( nor r"6r"0"nt'r& " #!o od"#0' ! 6o t (#t"(" Lo%&!"&$ Bntr #t t no+& n"# do nd&t' d&n r" n&r"# o "nt

# not"(or !o n" #r" o 7#(o#r" (o%&!'. =or # " t" &n% r# !#r"ot'r'*t"$ 'r' # " +&n" Bn "# '$ d#!' "# %#r#nt"#0' # n *& ond ( r"#(#( o &"!t ( & *t&&n+& &!. A!" t !r&t"r& or #( r' n" ot'rBtor *& 6 d"!#t' *& 6"ntr r#+&on# "nt. Bnto! #& ! d" no+& n" n #7" n&!&o #(%#r#n+&"$ Bn # #r' d" #!ord ( or #( #( "& ! 6o t (#t"(" Lo%&!"&$ tot n&!& d" B 6r" n#r"# no+& n&(or Bn r#+&on# "nt5 6r"t t&nd"n& &n% r!" n& " %#r#nt"#0' " t" 7#(o#r"# or #(' (o%&!'$ &#r n 7#(o#r"# d"#d"7'r r& r"#(" *t&&n+& &!"$ !or" 6 n0'to#r" ! d#t"(" "F6"r&"n+&&. Lo#!"# t#$ !#r" .!ont&n ' tr#d&+&# ( & Ar& tot"($ 6r" 6 n" d#r$ Bntr ! t "

&nt&t ("#0' >"(" "nt#r' ?$ !' "(" "nt"(" #d"7'r ( & *t&&n+& &! 6ot & %'



"F!( &7 Bn r#+& n"# 6 r' # o ( &$ &#r Bntr ! t #6o& "# " #& &nt&> or #(' ?$ 6r" 6 n" Bn 6( !' "(" "nt"(" #d"7'r ( & *t&&n+& &!$ nn #& !' 6ot & %' &t" "F!( &7 Bn r#+& n"$ d#r "F!( &7 Bn #!or 6o t (#t"(" or #(" #(" r#+& n&&. C #(t" ! 7&nt"$ d 6' #!"# t' Lo%&tr#d&+&on#('$ #d"7'r ( " +&n" 6" #!ord ( or #($ Bn !#r" " %' " !$ 6"o 6#rt"$ "(" "nt"(" #(" "(" Bntr" "("$ &#r 6" d" #(t' 6#rt"$ tot 6" #!ord (

or #( Bn !#r" " %' "*t" "( #+' d" #(t" #d"7'r r&@<.



RA,ORTUL DE SUPSUMARE. ) N"%r"*&t$ ! #!" t !r&t"r& or #( n" 6 t"# # n%" (# o #(t' & t" #t&0#r" # #d"7'r r&(or$d"! t (# #!"# #0#t

6" r#6ort ( d" #r"$ (# !#r" # n " " *& Ar& tot"($ !'!& or&*&!"r#6ort #r d"6'*& !r&t"r& ( d"(# !#r" # 6("!#t. R#6ort ( d" #r" " t"

&n% r ( !#r" 6o#t" & t# &(&t 6 r r#+&on#($ #d&!' 'r' # " r"! r%" B#& & 6"r&o $ (# "F6"r&"n+'$ -) *& Bn!' *& #!" t# n #& Bn #6#r"n+'. In

!#0 ($ #r"# not"(or Bn ! 6r&n ( n"& &d"& *& # n"& &d"& Bn" t" #*# d" & 6('$ Bn! t n !"r" 6r"# (t' n!' &nt"("!t #(' 6"ntr # "Bn+"("%"5 d" #!""# *& n&& &(o o & 7or " ! d" !on t&t +&# on#&nt"(&%"n+&&5 &#r Bn (& # ( !o n$ &"!#r" Bn+"("%" n #r#6ort Bntr" &"!t *& 6r"d&!#t$ 'r' ' t& &!' #& d" #6ro#6"$ !Bn !" ' r' " t" '! t' #r"#. E t" d"(# &n" Bn+"(" $ 6"ntr to+&$ !

&"!t ( " ! 6r&nd" Bn "r# 6r"d&!#t ( &$ # &n7"r $ !' 6r"d&!#t! 6r&nd" Bn !on+&n t ( d"t"r &n'r&(or #d " &"!t ( &$ 'r' 7r7"r& &!#r" 6r"#(# &('. EF6"r&"n+# #non& ' # !"(or !#r" # 7or &t 6 n' #!Bn#&nt"# no# tr'$ &F nd (& # ($ d& 6"n "#0' 6" #!"& d" #! ' 7"r&#!" t r#6ort5 "( # d"7"n&t o#r"! o d"6r&nd"r" # &nt"(&%"n+&& o "n"*tOr&*&!" #(t r#6ort n #r" 6o0&+& n"# #*# d" 6r&7&("%&#t'. R#6ort ("%#(&t#t" d&n M#t" #t&!'$ r#6ort ( d" d"6"nd"n+' !# 0#(' d&n =&0&!'5r#6ort ( d" &(&#+& n" d&n P&o(o%&"$ "t!.$ #!" t"# to#t" n " Bn+"("%

*or *& tr" " ! Bn tot !#0 ( 7"r& &!#t" 6r&n d" on tr#+&"$ # "F6"r&S&n% r r#6ort ( d" #r" 6#r" "7&d"nt 6r&n &n" Bn *&$ #& #("B& 7&n" Bn # tor *& &nt &+& n"# 6#+& ( &. Un !"r! &! " Bntr n !"r! #r" *& #!" t# (# r nd ( ' Bntr n !"r! *& #& #r": !" ( !r 6o#t" & #& "7&d"nt Ş& # t "($ ! #!"# t' &!' Bn!ord#r" &nt"("!t #(#!t&7&t#t"# or #(' # Lo%&!"& B*& 6o#t" #!r"d&t# 7#(o#r"#. o #7"# #Bnt &$ d 6' d" &n&+&# no+& n&& # tr#!t"$ r#6ort ( d&ntr" "r# *&#!" t"&#. D#!' !on+&n t ( Bn " n"#0' # d"t"r &n'r&(or$ &#r "rBn " n"#0' n 'r ( "F" 6(#r"(or # 6r# !'ror# " "Ft&nd" no+& n"#$#t n!& "7&d"nt ! ! t d"t"r &n'r&(" nt #& n "ro# " ! #t t "r# " t"

#& r" tr n ' *& ! ! t d"t"r &n'r&(" nt #& 6 +&n" ! #t t *& "r# #& #r". o #7"# #6o& !(# & &!#r"# *& !on "!7"nt #!" t"& !(# & &!

d"n &r"# no+& n&(or Bn !ontr#r" *& !ontr#d&!tor&&$ !on!ord#nt" *& o6!or"(#t" *& d& 6#r#t"$ "t!. In r*&t$ 6" #0# #!"( &#*& r#6ort d" d" &n& d"!#t# *& d& t&n%" d& "r&t"(" !(# " d" d"!#t'5 d"r#+&on# "nt ( *& d& t&n%" d" ! t" "( r& 6o#t" & #!" t r#+&on# "nt.



37. =ELURIMEA UDECĂŢILOR IN LOGICA TRADIŢIONALĂ. ) d"!#t#$ Bn Lo%&!# od"rn'$ " t" d" &n&t' !# &&nd d"t"r &n#r"# n"&no+& n& Bn(' ntr ( n & & t" d" r#6ort r&$ !#r& r#6ort r& &&nd #0"F6"r&"n+' nt 7#r&#t" !# *& #!"# t' "F6"r&"n+'$ 6" ! nd d"!#t#$ Bn Lo%&!tr#d&+&on#('$ " t" d"t"r &n#r"# n"& no+& n& d&n 6 n!t ( d" 7"d"r" #r#6ort ( & d" #r". D" #!""# t&6 ( d"!'+&&$ d 6' Lo%&!# tr#d&+&onn " 6o#t" (&6 & d" !o6 (# > " t" ?$ A " t" R5 &&nd!' 6r&n > " t" ? "

Bn+"("%" # & ! 6r&n Bn !"7#5 # & 6#rt"# n & tot. D" ! t" or& B 6r" nt"r "n&(or n"& d"!'+& n " #!" d 6' r#6ort ( d" #r"$ d" #t t"# or&r& !' ' n" # #t" d"(# r!% ("(" or #(" #(" Lo%&!"& tr#d&+&on#(". A " t" R$n Bn Bn+"(" ( d" A ` R$ !& Bn Bn+"(" ( d" A H a R 2A ! 6r&n Bn E$ #! 6r&n Bn A<5 !'!& d#!' A ̀ P$ #t n!& #r r # !' *& P ` A$ !""# !" Y " t" Bn '&n"F#!t d 6' I(o%&!# or #('. To+& o# "n&& nt r&tor&$ d#r n *& to

r&tor&& nt o# "n&$ !'!& 6ot & ! 6r&n " Bn !(# # d" r&tor& *& #(t" Bn # #r' d" o# "n&.

Tot d 6' r#6ort ( d" #r"$ #!" Lo%&!# tr#d&+&on#(' d& t&n!-+& n"# d&ntr" d"!'+&(" #n#(&t&!" *& d"!'+&(" &nt"t&!". In !"(" d&no+& n"# # &d""# 6r"d&!#t&7' " t" d" #& Bn#&nt" Bn+"("# ' Bn !on+&n

&"!t ( &$ d" "F. ; #dr#t ( " t" n 6#r#("(o%r# 5 6" ! nd Bn d"!'+&("d&n r '$ Bn !"(" &nt"t&!"$ no+& n"# 6r"d&!#t&7' #d#o%' !"7# no (#no+& n"# &"!t ( & : (&n&# dr"#6t' " t" dr ( !"( #& ! rt Bntr" do 6 n!t".



B 6'r+&nd d"!'+&("$ d 6' !#(&t#t"# (or$ Bn # &r #t&7" *& n"%#t&7"$ &!#nt&t#t"# (or Bn n&7"r #(" *& 6#rt&! (#r"$ Lo%&!# tr#d&+&on#(' do n 6#tr !(# " d" d"!'+& *& #n ": 1< n&7"r #( # &r #t&7" *& @< n&n"%#t&7"$ 3< 6#rt&! (#r # &r #t&7" *& 4< 6#rt&! (#r n"%#t&7"$ !#r"$ #7Bn 7"d"r" #!"(#*& r#6ort d" #r"$ " "F!( d # " Bn+"("% Bn"(" d 6' r 'to#r"(" r"% (&. d"!#t# n&7"r #( # &r #t&7': To+& o# "n&

nt r&tor&$ d#!' " t" #d"7'r#t'$ & 6(&!' Bn &n" *& #d"7'r ( 6#rt&! (#r# &r #t&7": o 6#rt" d&n o# "n& nt r&tor& 2r"% (# #(t"rn'r&A!""#*& d"!#t' n&7"r #( # &r #t&7' t' Bn o6o0&+& n" ! d"!#

n&7"r #( n"%#t&7'$ '! t' # 6r# #!"( &#*& o &"!t: d#!' " t" #d"7'r#t !'to+& o# "n&& nt r&tor&$ #t n!& n 6o#t" & #d"7'r#t' d"!#t#: to# "n&& n nt r&tor& 2r#6ort d" !ontr#r&"t#t"<. C #t t #& (t$ d#! d"!#t# n&7"r #(# &r #t&7' " t". #d"7'r#t'$ " "F!( d" 6o & &(&t#t#d"7'r ( & n"& d"!'+& 6#rt&! (#r n"%#t&7" # 6r# #!"( &#*& o &"!t 2d" !ontr#- d&!+& n"<. D#!' to+& o# "n&& nt r&tor&$ o 6#rt" d&n o#n 6ot & n" r&tor&$ "t!. To#t" #!" t" r"% (& " d"d ! d" &n"$ d&&nt &+& n"# r#6ort ( & d" #r" *& Bn 6"!&#( d&n &nt &+& n"%"o "tr&!" !#r& " 6ot 6 n" Bn #!" t r#6ort <.

38. SILOGISMUL$ SO=ISMELE. ) T&6 ( !(# &! #( r#+&on# "nt ( &$d 6' Lo%&!# tr#d&+&on#('$ " t" n"%r"*&t &(o%& ( #r& tot"(&!$ #!" t# " 6otr&7"*t" #& &n" d"! t or&!#r" #(t ( ! 6o t (#t"(" Lo%&!"

or #(". R#+&on# "nt ( !#r" d !" (# r"0o(7&r"# 6ro (" "(or or#("$ #r#+&on# "nt ( !#r" d !" (# t# &(&r"# ("%&(or !# 0#(" #(" n#t r&& nt d" 6 +&n' 7#(o#r" (o%&!'$ 6"ntr # tor&rd" #n #("$ !#r& " +&n d" 6&rtr#d&+& n&&$ d"! t r#+&on# "nt ( &(o%& t&!$ !#r" " #0"#0' "F!(r#6ort ( d" #r" # n"& &d"&$ # &"!t$ !# t"r "n &!$ Bntrt"r "n #r" 6r&n & (o!&r"# n & t"r "n "d& . A no+& n"#$ #

&"!t ( So!r#t"$ t"r "n ( !"( &!$ *& # n t"r "n #r": 6r"d&!#t (r&tor5 ! .# n% " ' B 6r" n #!"*t& do& t"r "n& ,r&n %' &r"# n

t"r "n "d& !#r" ' ! 6r&nd' Bn "( t"r "n ( !"( &! *& ' &" *& "( tot *&! 6r&n Bn t"r "n ( !"( #r". A!" t .t"r "n "d& " t" !#(&t#t"# d" o #( & So!r#t". O# "n&& ! to+&& nt r&tor&. So!r#t" " t" d&ntr" o# "nSo!r#t" " t" r&tor. S #r"# ( & So!r#t" Bn "r# 6r"d&!#t ( & r&to

# #r"# 6r"d&!#t ( & r&tor Bn !on+&n t ( no+& n&& S2S t#n+"& So!r#t"< nt 6"r "!t"$ d"!& *& r#+&on# "nt ( " t" 6"r "!t.

M"r ( &(o%& ( & 6o#t" & 7#r&#t d 6' 6o0&+&# t"r "n ( & !'!& #!"# t' 6o0&+&" * r"#0' # n #r"# t"r "n&(or. In "F" 6( (



d" #& : O. M.=&% r# I-# S. O.S. M.

t"r "n ( "d& 2O < " t" &"!t Bn 6r& # d"!#t' *& " t" 6r"d&!#t Bn do # d"!#t' *& 6r&n #!"# t' 6o0&+&" # ( & n # #7 t ' Bnt 6&n' n&%r" t#t" Bn #r"# t"r "n&(or. N tot # t "( " 6r"0&nt' Bn ' *&!"("(#(t" !#0 r&. D#!' # 0&!": M. O.

=&% r# I(-# S. O.S 2 < M.#d&!'$ d#!' t"r "n ( 2O < " t" 6r"d&!#t Bn # ndo ' d"!'+&("

" 6o#t" !o#t" tot #*# d" *or !on!( 0&# !' So!r#t" " t" r&tor In"F" 6( ( no tr n&!&od#t'. C'!& d&n #6t ( !' r&tor&& *& So!r#t" nto# "n&$ n r "#0' !# to+& o# "n&& ' &" r&tor&$ *& 6o#t" d"!& n&So!r#t" ' &" r&tor. In #(t" "F" 6(" d" r#+&on# "nt$ d#t" d 6' #!"&#*&

&% r'$ nd" Bn (o! d" d"!'+& n&7"r #( # &r #t&7"$ # #7"# !"( 6 +&nn&7"r #( n"%#t&7'$ # o 6#rt&! (#r n"%#t&7'$ 6 t" # n%" (# o

!on!( 0&"$ d#r (# o !on!( 0&" n"%#t&7'. "&& n" r&tor& n nt o# "n&So!r#t" " t" o . So!r#t" n " t" Bntr" 0"&& n" r&tor&. Ş& #*# Bn to#t""F" 6("(" #!" t"& &% r&. A!"# t# d" # do # &% r'$ 6r&n r #r"$ n n 6o#t" d# d"! t !on!( 0&& n"%#t&7"$ #!""# !" " t" d" o &!' 7#(o#r" (o%&!' 6"ntr r#6ort ( d" #r"$ !'!& " t" #& & 6ort#nt ' *t& !" "

"#0' d"! t #!""# !" n " "#0'.In (o! d" # 6 n" t"r "n ( "d& !# 6r"d&!#t Bn # ndo ' 6r" & "("

'-( 6 n" !# &"!t:O. M.

=&% r# I(I-# O. S.S 2 < M

Ur "#0' Bn #!"# t' &% r' ! n"!" &t#t"$ !' So!r#t" " t" r&torI#r'*& n . =&&nd!'$ d#!' to+& o# "n&& nt r&tor& *& to+& o# "n&! &# ' So!r#t"$ 6o#t" ' #& &" o#rt" &n" *& #(t" o &"!t" Bn # #r' d"o# "n& !#r& ' " ! " " So!r#t"Q D"!& &n% r# !on!( 0&" n"!" #r' 6"!#r" o 6 t" !o#t" d&n #!"# t' &% r' " t" !' o 6#rt" d&n #!"& !" "! &# ' So!r#t" nt r&tor&$ #d&!' !' 1/S.M. In or&*&!" "F" 6( 7o( #$ d&n #!"# t' &% r'$ n 7o 6 t"# ' !'6' d" !on tr n%"r"# d" #r"d !" !on!( 0&# (# o d"!#t' 6#rt&! (#r'.

C n ! 7 nt$ &n% r# &% r' 6"r "!t' 6"ntr r#6ort ( d" #r"" t" &% r# I-#$ nd" t"r "n ( & (o!& " t" &"!t Bn 6r" & # Bnt & 6r"d&!#t Bn 6r" & # do #. D" #!""# *& Ar& tot"( *& ! d n ( to+& &(o!#r& r "#0' tr#d&+&# ( &$ !on &d"r' #!"# t' &% r' !# t&6 ( !(# &!





S!"6t&!&& "(&n& # & +&t !"& d&nt & !' r"d !"r"# or+#t' # t t ror r#6ortd&ntr" &"!t *& 6r"d&!#t (# r#6ort ( d" #r" d !" r#+&on# "nt (

o#rt" (t" !#0 r& (# !on!( 0&& #(*"$ d" #!""# "& & # *& '! t o #r!ontr# &(o o &"& do% #t&!" d&n 6r#!t&!# o & "(or$ !#r" n nt #(d"! t #6(&!#+&& "F#%"r#t" #(" r#6ort ( & d" - #r" (# tot "( ( d" !#0 6" !#r" (" 6r"0&nt' "F6"r&"n+#. P n'o#r' o & # !ro!od&( ( &. Un !ro!od&(r'6"*t" n"& # " !o6&( ($ 6" !#r" 6ro &t" '-( r" t&t "$ d#!' # # 7#% &!& ot'rBr"# 6" !#r" o 7# ( # !ro!od&( (. C#r" 7# & r' 6 n ( # "& 6"ntr # r" *& ' o +&n' !o6&( ( Or&!#r" #r & r' 6 n ( # "&$ ) &" "# 0&!" !' 7# #7"# !o6&( ($ &" !' "# 7# 0&!" !' && -1 7# #7"#$ Y) 6r&n

or # d" #r" # &(o%& ( &$ !ro!od&( ( n 6o#t" & !on tr nr" t&t &r". S# o & # Cr"t#n&(or &n!&no*&. To+& Cr"t#n&& nt &0&!" E6& "n&d" 5 d#r E6& "n&d" " t" "( Bn *& Cr"t#n$ d"!& E6& "n- &nt" ! nd # &r ' d" 6r" Cr"t#n& !' nt &n!&no*&... C#r" &% r' d"

&(o%& n" 6o#t" d# !on!( 0&# #d"7'r#t' S# o & # ( & En#t (oEn#t (o 6ro &t" !' 7# 6('t& ( & ,rot#%or# onor#r& ( !"-& d#tor"*t"$ d 6'!" 7# ! *t&%# 6r& ( 6ro!" . D#r En#t (o n 7r"# ' #& ' 6ro!" ". ,ro-t#%or# d nd -1 Bn d"!#t'$ 6o#t" #7"# onor#r& ( D#!' 6&"rd" 6ro!" ($n -U#r"$ &&nd!' " 6&"rd t5 d#!'-1 ! *t&%' n -1 #r"$ &&nd!' En#t (o n # ! *t&%#t 6r& ( 6ro!" d 6' Bn7o&#('. C#r" " t" &% r# d" &(o%&!#r" ,rot#%or# 6o#t" #d !" 6" En#t (o ' " !on7&n%' (# 6(#t' S# $ Bn

r*&t: !" n #& 6&"rd t #&5 !o#rn" n #& 6&"rd t5 d"!& !o#rn" #&.

39. ALOAREA SILOGISMULUI. )Y S' "F# &n' #! 7#(o#r"#r#+&on# "nt ( &$ '! t d 6' t&6 ( &(o%& ( &.

E7&d"nt #!" t r#+&on# "nt #r" 7#(o#r"# 6" !#r" o #r" *& r#6ort ( d"#r" Bn or%#n&0#r"# ! no*t&n+"(or no# tr"$ !'!& &(o%& ( n

n r"0 (t#t Bn 6( 6" t" #!"("# !#r" d"! r% d&n #!" t d&n r ' r#6ort. ,r&nr #r"$ ! r#6ort ( d" #r" # t' (# !(#r& &!#r"# ! no*t&n+"(or *& !

d"o " &r" &# "F6 n"r"# *& r"0 #r"# ! no*t&n+"(or$ d" #!" t # tor n" 7# *& &(o%& (. ,"ntr # (' r& *& r"0 # #!""# !" #7" Bn &nt" *& 6"ntrtr#n &t"r"# #& #(" # ! no*t&n+"(or no# tr" (# #(+&&$ "( 7# & totd"# &n" 7"n&t. D&n #!"# t' !# 0' Bn #rt# or#tor&!' &(o%& ( 7# o! 6# n (d" r nt". D#r 6"ntr d" !o6"r&r"# #d"7'r ( &$ Bntr" &n+#r"# ( & " t" d 6r"# 6 +&n # tor4<. C"( (t Bn &nt"r6r"t#r"# #t"r&#( ( & !'rt r'r" ! 2#*#0& ( > #7o&r (&7r" ; " ?< B( 7o Bnt (n& !# "tod' *t&&n+& &!'$ &#!"# t' 6#rt" # "todo(o%&"& *t&&n+& &!" "( Bnt'r"*t" 6&r&t ( !r&t&!.



40. 8 ALOAREA DIALECTICEI.-)-D#!' 7#(o#r"# &(o%& ( &tr" &" # t "( o#rt" (t !'0 t'$ ! #t t #& (t tr" &" !'0 t'7#(o#r"# D&#("!t&!"& r#+&on#(". D&#("!t&!# #r" o 6r"t"n+& n" Bn 6( 6"

&(o%& . S&(o%& ( B*& 'r%&n"*t"$ 6r"t"n+& n"# # (# %' &r"# nno Bntr" &d"& ! no ! t"$ 6" ! nd d&#("!t&!# "r%" 6 n' (# 6r"t"n+& n"# d"# %' & n n #& r#6ort r& no& Bntr" &d"& 7"! & *& ! no ! t"$ !& *& &d"# #r' d" or&*&!" #t&n%"r" ! "F6"r&"n+#. Ş& ! 6r"t"n+& n"# D&#("!t&!" t" o#rt" (t 6r& &n&t' 6" 6r&n!&6&&(" Lo%&!"& tr#d&+&on#("5 !"

(t$ ! D&#("!t&!# " t" !o 6(&n&r"# n#t r#(' # (o%&!"& tr#d&+&on#(d& ! +& n"# # 6r# 7#(o#r"& 6" !#r" o #r" D&#("!t&!#$ #t&n%" *& 7#(o#Lo%&!"& tr#d&+&on#(".

C" 7#(o#r" 6o#t" #7"# D&#("!t&!#$ !# "tod' d" %' &r" # nor #d"-7'r r& no& Bntr"#%# d" 7o(t#r" # *t&&n+"& d" 6 n' #! r' 6 nd"$ (# #!" #Bntr" #r"$ Bn od ot'rBt: "tod# 6 r d&#("!t&!' n 6o#t" #7"# o 7#(o#r" 6o0&t&7'. To#t" Bn!"r!'r&(" '! t" 6 n' # t'0& Bn !o6 ( d" # do nd&$ 6r&n

6"! (#+& n&(" r#+& n"& 6 r"$ #d"7'r r& no&$ !#r& ' r' n' Bn *t&&n+'d (# 7r" n r"0 (t#t$ !& to#t" # 6r' *&t. C"# d&n r '$ *& !#r" 6o#t" n7# #& & r"6"t#t'$ " t" #!""# # &(o o ( & %"r #n "%"( b<. M"tod#d&#("!t&!'$ *& B 6r" n' ! d n # to#t'$ d&r"!+&# Lo%&!"& tr#d&+&on#("$%r"*#(# d" # ( # !# 6o & &(' %' &r"# #d"7'r ( & n #& 6" #0# d#t"(or

or #(" #(" r#+& n"&$ 'r' # #6"(# (# !ontro( ( "F6"r&"n+&&. A!"# t' %r"*#(' #o t 6r&n!&6#(# 6&"d&!' Bn d" 7o(t#r"# Lo%&!"& 6 n' #! . Bn('t r#r"# "

!on t&t " n 6ro%r" 6"ntr Bntr"#%# &(o o &" *t&&n+& &!'.

) i u ?aiorescu, Logica, > a edi ie. Bucureş i.. Broc6ard, Etudes de %hiloso%hie ancienne ei %hiloso%hie moderne. +aris, 1=12

. ) :. #. ;ange, Logische "tudien.

BC Q. F . ?i%i, "#stime de logi9ue, I, p. 2=G. 0. 5"du%escu ?o ru,!aloareasilogismului, 'n F udii :i%oso$ice, I.



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>) #do%$ rende%en&urg, Logische 3n'ersaehungen (;eip*ig, 18J=), I, p.A>.L E C Ţ I A WWII-#

41. METODELE EWACTE. OPIECTUL MATEMATICII. ) D" &n&+&# o &"!t"(or d" !#r" " o! 6' &"!#r" *t&&n+'$ d"t"r &n' B 6'r+&

"tod"(or. A!"# t' B 6'r+&r" n " #!" Bn ' d 6' %r#d ( d" r"#(&t#t" #(o &"!t"(or$ !'!& r"#(&t#t"# " 6r" 6 n" # & Bn #!"(#*& %r#d (# to#to &"!t"(" n#t r&&$ !& d 6' %r#d ( d" "F#!t&t#t"$ ! !#r" *t&&n+# B*& 6d" &n& o &"!t"(" *& !#r" "F#!t&t#t" " t" Bn #d"7'r 7#r&#t'. A7" # t "(

"tod" "F#!t" *& "tod" #& 6 +&n "F#!t"$ &#r n "tod" r"#(" *& "tod"#& 6 +&n r"#(". Un 6o6or$ # o !(# ' o!&#('$ !# o &"!t d" *t&&n+'$ n

6ot r"6r"0"nt# *& d" &n& ! #!"&#*& "F#!t&t#t"$ ! " 6ot r"6r"0"nt# *&d" &n& n or%#n& d" #n& #( # d" 6(#nt' *& #!" t"# d&n r ' &#r'*& ! #!"&#*& "F#!t&t#t" !# o &% r' %"o "tr&!'$ "t!. To#t" #!" t" o &"!t" ntBn #!"(#*& %r#d d" r"#("$ !'!& n 6o6or n " t" #& 6 +&n r"#( d"! t o &%%"o "tr&!'$ d#r n Bn #!"(#*& %r#d d" "F#!t&t#t". =&% r# *& r#6ort r&(" %

"tr&!" (" 6 t" r"6r"0"nt# #*# d" "F#!t Bn! t (" *& Bn(o! & ! r"- (#+& n&& o(&!"$ 6" ! nd n or%#n& d" #n& #( *& d" 6(#nt'$ #& 6 +&n5 &#

6o6or$ # o !(# ' o!&#('$ Bn!' *& #& 6 +&n. S nt$ ! #(t" ! 7&nt"$ o &"d" *t&&n+' !#r" 6#r #& d"6'rt#t" *& #(t"(" !#r" 6#r #& #6ro6&#t" d" &nt"#o "n"# !'. A!" t"# d&n r ' %' " ! 6"ntr Lo%&!' o tr#d !"r" #& "F#!t'Bn o6"r#+& n&(" #("$ 6" ! nd !"("(#(t" n . M"tod"("$ !#r" " #6(&!' (#o &"!t"(" #& #6ro6&#t"$ #& #6ro6&#t"$ n !# 6#+& $ !& !# * r&n+' d"tr#d " Bn o6"r#+& n&(" (o%&!"$ -) nt #& "F#!t" d"! t !"("(#(t" !#r" "#6(&!' (# o &"!t" #& %r" d" r"6r"0"nt#t *& d" d" &n&t1<.

?O &"!t ( *t&&n+"& M#t" #t&!": n "r&("$ &% r&("-$ %"o "tr&!"

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A!"# t' &d"#(&t#t" r&% ro# ' # o &"!t ( & M#t" #t&!&(or n !o-r" 6 nd" Bn ' ! #!"# !" *t& d" 6r" or&%&n&(" *t&&n+"(or #t" #t&!"O# "n&& 6r& &t&7&$ #!"&# !#r" n"-# 6r"!"d#t$ !# *& r" t r&(" 6r& &t&7# t'0&$ n # %' &t Bn n!+& n"# r#+& n&& (or !on tr !t&7" d" ord&n" *%"o "tr&!" n&!& n # tor 6"ntr Bn!"6"r"# M#t" #t&!&&. ,r& &t&7 ( *& #n 'r' ! (t' d& &! (t#t" 6" d"%"t" *& #d" "or& n " r&d&!' 6 n' (#n 'r ( tot#( #( d"%"t"(or d"(# o n'. C (t' #n"7o&n+' #6o& # # n!&7&(&0#+&&(" !#r" # 6r"!"d#t 6" # no# tr'$ (# &d""# d" ord&n" n "r&!=&% r&(" %"o "tr&!" 6 n' (# Bn!"6 t ( !&7&(&0#+&"& "(&n"$ #7"# o "Fn #& !# ' r'tor& 6" 6r# #+# 6' nt ( &$ d" nd" *& n "(" d"G"o "tr&"$ Bn!' 6" t& 6 ( ( & , t #%or# $ n "r"(" "r# !on &d"r#t" !# 6ro6r&"t'+& #(" ( !r r&(or$ &#r #r on&# n "r&!' 6r"! *& !"# %"o "tr&!'

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or&%&n"(" #("$ M#t" #t&!#$ &&nd r"d ' (# n "r"(" 6o0&t&7" r#+&o(# &% r&(" !(# &!" #(" G"o "tr&"&$ "r# !&& d" '7 r*&r" Bn n"6 t&"r7"# !' dr"6t &n tr "nt d" tr#d !"r" # !""# !" " 7"d"$ !# or '

r"% (#t' *& #!""# !" " 6"tr"!"$ !# &*!#r"$ Bn ( "# "n & &('5 # t'0& BM#t" #t&!#$ %r#+&" #n#(&0"& 6"r&o#r" *& #& ! d"o " &r" !#(! ( ( & d& "r"n+&#( *& &nt"%r#( "r7"*t" d" &n n" 6"ntr tr#d !"r"r#6ort r& &nt#(" # tot !" " t" ' r# &( # # tot !" " t" or ' r"% (#t' Bn"F6"r&"n+'<. D"!& 6r&n !r"#+& n&(" #(" & o(&!"$ M#t" #t&!# n t&nd

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O &( tr#+&" r o# ' # tr n "& ("%'t r& !#r" "F& t# Bntr" M#t" #t&"F6"r&"n+' n"-o o "r' o6"r#+&# &nt"r6o(#+&"&. ,r&n &nt"r6o(#+&" M#t"Bn+"("%" !o 6("t#r"# n"& "r&&$ # n"& ord&n" d" !!" & n" # #n#t r&&$ 6r&n & (o!&r"# !#(! ( ( &. S6r" "F. 6r&n ' r#r"# n"& #"t#($ 6" !#r" # 6 n"-o (# o Bn!'(0&r" tr"6t#t'$ n # 6 t"# # n%" d"! t(# d"6"nd"n+" &n% r#t&!" Bntr" #n &t" ( n%& & #(" #r"& 2L$ LI$ L

L4... Ln< *& #n &t" %r#d" d" t" 6"r#t r' 2T$ TI$ T@$ T3$ T4... Tn<$ 'r' n" 6 t" Bn '+&*# !ont&n &t#t"# d" d"6"nd"n+' Bntr" #r# Bn !r"*t"r" d" o

6#rt" *& t" 6"r#t r# Bn !r"*t"r" Bn #(t' 6#rt". A!"# t' !ont&n &t#t" d"d"6"nd"n+' " t" r"0 (t#t ( &nt"r6o(#+& n&&$ !#r" 7&n" ' !o 6("t"0"

&nt"r7#("(" (' #t" (& "r" d&ntr" d"6"nd"n+"(" &n% r#t&!" !on t#t#t". ='r#!"# t' !ont&n &t#t"$ r"0 (t#t #( &nt"r6o('r&&$ to#t' ' r'to#r"# no# tr' #r& 'r' t&(&t#t" 6r#!t&!' b<.@ @9L E C Ţ I A WWIII-#

@ ) ;ouis ;iard, Des de)initions geomelri9ues et des di)initions em%iri9ues. +aris,19=A, 111 $eme Edi .

2) ;"on Brunsc6 icg. Les ita%es de la %hiloso%hie mathemati9ue. +aris, 1912.E. 5ignano, (( ragionamento matematico e c. ('n Fcien*a, I, 1—A, 191@).

@9 7. +oincare, L:anal#se et la %h#si9ue ('n La &aleur de la "cience, p. 1A>).@) Fp. 0. 7are , 'n 4ecani9ue sociale (Buc., 191=) $ace o deas" 'n re&uin are W%e

in erpo%a iune şi %a e p%icarea $enomene%or socia%e.



1G=C. R. MOTRU: LECŢII DE LOGICĂ

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METODOLOGIA 141

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#& d"6#rt" d"(# 1 (# &n &n&t.



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L E C Ţ I A WWI -#

43. MATEMATICA ŞI EW,ERIENŢA. ) Ad"7'r r&(" #t" #t&!"$od#t' &n" t# &(&t" 6r&n r#+&on# "nt$ n #& # n"7o&" ' &" 7"r& &!

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n#t r'$ n'o#r': d&n 0"!" n !&$ # d&n 0"!" 6&"tr"$ # d&n 0"!" o# "n&$

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d&n#d&n ( (# o "r7#+& n"# *& "F6"r&"n+# "Ft"rn'$ &0 t"*t" 'B o%'+"# !' *t&&n+# o "n"# !' ! n 7# t & t" d" or (" 6r&n

# tor ( !'ror# " 6ot !#(! (# !"(" #& !o 6(&!#t" r#6ort r& d&ntr"o &"!t"(" *& #6t"(" "F6"r&"n+"&. A!"# t' o6"r#+&" d" t&t &r"$ %!'r"&# M#t" #t&!# do nd"*t" #t t"# r"0 (t#t"$ " t" Bn &n" ! tot (

#(t!"7# d"! t o t# to(o%&"5 "# " t" o o6"r#+& n" d" !on tr !+&" &nt#('$ 6r&n & (o!&r"# !'r"&# " t# &(" ! &d"nt&t'+&$ #!o(o nd" Bn#&nt" n

o "r7# . S t&t &r"# 6ro6r& 0& '$ n B o%'+"*t" *t&&n+# o "n"# !'$ d#r t&t &r"# #t" #t&!' " t" 6r"!"d#t' d" Bntr"7"d"r"#

n"& &d"nt& &!'r& d&ntr n #n &t 6 n!t d" 7"d"r"$ #d&!' d" Bntr"7"-d"r"# n"& !or" 6ond"n+" !#r" 6"r &t" t&t &r"#$ *& #!"# t' 6#rt" #

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148 G. R. MOTRU: LECŢII DE LOGICĂ

L# #!"# t' Bntr" #r"$ 6r& ( r' 6 n B( d' , & o(o%&#. M&nt"# o "n"# !n" Bn7#+' , & o(o%&#$ #r" 6o & &(&t#t"# d" # Bntr"7"d"# # " 'n'r& Bo &"!t"(" *& #6t"(" d&n n#t r'5 d" # Bnt&nd" #6o& 6r&n #n#(o%&" r"0 (r#+&on# "nt ( & d"(# n"(" o &"!t" *& #6t"$ (# #(t" o &"!t" *& #6t". A!" 6rod !" n&7"r #(&t#t"# M#t" #t&!&&t" t" #*#d#r n!+& n"# d" # ! no 6r&n #n#(o%&"$ o n!+& n" o#rt" 7"! " *& o#rt" & 6ort#nt' Bn !o 6("

&n+&& o "n"*t&.A!" t r' 6 n n " t" Bn ' Bnd" t ('tor$ &&nd!' "( (# ' (# o 6#rt"

to! #& #!""# !" " t" #& !#r#!t"r& t&! r#+&on# "nt ( & #t" #t&! *& #n"F#!t&t#t"# ! !#r" r"0 (t#t"(" #!" t &# 6ot ' " #6(&!" *& d&n!o(o d"

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&% r#n+'. Ş!o(#r ( !#r" 6("#!' d&n !(# ' ! t# (# Bn (+&r&& Bn7'+#t' 6("#!' ! & 6(" %"r'r&$ !& ! r"% (&(" n & !#(! ( &% r 6" !#r" "( B( #6(&!# (# !"(" #& d"o " &t" o &"!t"5 *& (# o &"!t" 6" !#r" "($ 6 n' #!&$ nn (" ! no ! " '!#r. An#(o%&#$ -Bn or&!" !#0$ n d& 6"n "#0' d"7"r& &!#r"$ d& 6otr&7' & 6 n" 7"r& &!#r"# "F6"r&"n+&& !# o !o 6(n"!" #r'$ Bn#&nt" !# ' " tr#n or " Bn r#+&on# "nt &% r. An#(o%&#r#+&on# "nt ( #t" #t&! Bn ' d& 6"n "#0' d" 7"r& &!#r"# "F6"r&"n+&&" t"$ 6r&n r #r"$ !"7# #& (t d"! t & 6(# #n#(o%&" 6" !#r" o Bnt (n&!# o n!+& n" 6 & o(o%&!' # &n+&& o "n"*t&1<.



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A) 7. +oincare, "cience et methode. Les logi9ue nou&elles, p. 1J2 şi urm.

) Imm. Kan , Kritik der reinen !ernun;t.



L E C Ţ I A WW -#

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#t" #t&!&#n ( 6 r #r" o6r"7"d"r"$ &#r &n%&n"r ( #r" #(t' 6r"7"d"r".,r"7"d"r"# #!" t &# d&n r '$ !# *& 6r"7"d"r"# t t ror o# "n&(or d"*t&&n+' "F6"r& "nt#('$ " t" #0#t' 6" t d& ( "F6"r&"n+&&. In #6(&!#+&&(r"#(& ( #t" #t&! " t"$ 6r&n r #r"$ n"d" 6'r+&t d" "F6"r&"n+'. Un #(tr"#(& #t" #t&!$ ' #& "F& t" o#r" C# 6ro (" ' d" M"t#-(o%&!' do#r'I 3 31

3 r C #. 3iard, De la mithode dans Ies Sciences. (:e%i #%ean, +aris, 191=), p. 2=2.) #ugus e 0om e,$ours de %hiloso%hie %ositi&e. ome I, +aris, 18JJ.) Erns ?ac6,! er Gedankene6%erimente (in Erkenntnis und (rrtum, p. 18=.

G) <ii6e%m <inde%&and, Die Prin1i%ien der Logik (in #rno%d 5uge, Enc#clo- %5died. %hil. <issenscha)len, p. G2).

31 Erns 0assirer, Das Erkenninis%ro lem in der Philoso%hie und <issenscha)l der neueren +eii. B. I. (Ber%in, 1911).



L E C Ţ I U N E A W W I - #

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51. ) Kar% +earson, La grammaire de la Science, La Ph#si9ue ( rad. +aris,1912).APSTRACŢIA I OLATOARE. ) M"tod"("$ 6r&n !#r" 7o #7"# '# n%" (# #d"7'r r&(" &0&!o-! & &!"$ 7or #7"# #& Bnt & ' #t& 6r& "(" !"r&n+" #(" n!+& n&& d" # tr#!+& n"$ 'r' !#r" n "F& t' o & 6"ntr *t&&n+"(" &0&!o-! & &!" *& #n " 7or #7"# ' &0o("0"$ d&n tot 6ro6r&"t'+&(or ! !#r& " 6r"0&nt' n !or6 Bn ( "# &nt &+&& "n & &#!"("# !#r" " 6ot ' r# *& 6" #0# !'r"& ' r'r& " 6o#t" # (# n r#6ortd" !# 0#(&t#t". ,r&n r #r" "(" 7or !' t# ' r"d !' 6"r!"6+& n"# !or6 r&(or d&n n#t r' n #& (# #!""# !" " t" 6r& &tor d" ' r'to#r" "F#!t'. In (o! ( 6"r!"6+& n"& Bntr"%& # !or6 r&(or$ "tod"(" &0&!o-! & &!" 7or (r"6r"0"nt#r"# r"d ' # nor 6 n!t"$ # # nor &% r& !#r" & o(&0"#0'r"#(&t#t"# !or6 r&(or5 Bn (o! ( 7#r&#+& n&(or !o 6("F" *& !ont&n%"n 6"r!"6 t" d" & + r&$ 7or ( # &*!'r&(" "(" "nt#r" #(" !o 6on"nt"(or d&n!#r" nt !on t&t &t" 7#r&#+& n&(" !o 6("F" *& !ont&n%"nt"5 ! n ! 7 nt(o! ( 6"r!"6+& n"& "n & &(" #!t #("$ r"6r"0"nt#r"# n & tr#t *& #

"no "n" "(" "nt#r"$ 6r" 6 " # & (# #0# #!" t"& 6"r!"6+& n& "n & &#!t #(". In #!"# t' # tr#!+& n" &0o(#to#r" "(" nt # t#t" Bn #r" 6#rt" d"! no*t&n+"(" #t" #t&!". A!" t"# %"r"#0' !ont&n 6"r 6"!t&7"(" d 6'!#r" " 6ot %' & Bn !or6 r& 6ro6r&"t'+&(" !#r" !or" 6 nd$ Bn 7#r&#- +& n(or$ ord&n"& n "r&!" *& r#6ort r&(or %"o "tr&!"5 6r&n r #r"$ 6ro6r&"t'+!#r" nt 6r& &to#r" d" o ' r'to#r" "F#!t'. Un&& o# "n& d" *t&&n+' # n%! &#r ' # &r " !' n " 6o#t" d" !o6"r& o ("%" d" &0&!'$ d"! t d#!' "F& t'o or (' #t" #t&!'$ !#r" o #nt&!&6"0"1<. In tot !#0 ($ & t" #t&0#r"#d" &n&t&7' # n & #d"7'r d&n

Şt&&n+"(" &0&!o-! & &!" " #!" #d" "or& ! # tor ( M#t" #t&



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d&n r '$ ro( ( 6r&n!&6#( B( #r" #n#(o%&# !r"#to#r"$ !#r" B*& !on tr "*t" d! t"7# d#t" Bnt 6('to#r" o &6ot"0' d" 6r" #d"7'r ( !#r" #r" ' "d" !o6"r".

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d" ro ' "6rod !" totd"# n# ! nd " t" o d& "r"n+' d" t" 6"r#t r' Bntr"!or6 ( 6" !#r" " d"6 n" ro ' *& #"r ( # &#nt 5 #n " # !on t#t#t !'#!" t# d&n r ' " t" #& !#(d5 d#r #!"# t' "tod' n # &% r' !o 6("tBn('n+ &r"# !# 0#(' # #!" tor do ' "no "n" 5 !'!& " 6o#t" 6r"# &n"$ !#n r'!"#(# !or6 ( & ' !# 0"0" d"6 n"r"# 6&!'t r&(or d" ro '$ !& &n7"r $d"6 n"r"# 6&!'t r&(or d" ro ' ' !# 0"0" r'!"#(# !or6 ( &$ # Bn r*&t 6o#t" !# *& r'!"#(# !or6 ( & *& 6&!'t r&(" d" ro ' ' &" " "!t"(" n"& # tr!# 0" r' # ' n"! no ! t' <. M"tod# d& "r"n+"& 7&n" ' !o 6("t"0" 6"#!""# # !on!ord#n+"&. In #d"7'r$ d#!' d& "r"n+&" "F6"r&"n+# *& !'d"t" 6"r#t r# #"r ( & Bn!on r'tor$ Bn #*# "( !# #!" t# ' &" tot #t t d" r"!!# *& !or6 r&(" ! 6r&n " Bn "($ #t n!& 6&!'t r&(" d" ro ' n " #& 6rodd"*& to#t" !"("(#(t" !ond&+& n& #(" "no "n ( & # r' # #!"("#*&. C# 6&!'t r&(or d" ro ' !on & t' #*# d#r Bn d& "r"n+# Bn 6( d" !'(d r' ##"r ( & Bn!on r'tor. III. In "tod' r" &d r&(or$ . St. M&(( n d' o r"%d" !"r!"t#r"$ !& o r"% (' d" %' &t o &6ot"0' d&n "F# &n#r"# n"& t'r&

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r '. I . In r*&t$ Bn "tod# 7#r&#+& n&(or !on!o &t"nt"$ !"# # 6rod !t&7' d&ntr" to#t"$ "F6"r& "nt#tor ( #r" #t"n+& n"# Bndr"6t#t' (## " 'n'r&(" 6" !#r" (" 6r"0&nt' 7#r&#+& n&(" # do '$ # #& (t"

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&n+&& d&r"!+& n"# Bn !#r" tr" &" !' t#t #d"7'r (J<. In #!"# t' 6r&7&n+'$&n ( "n+# 6" !#r" # #7 t-o &n tr "nt"(" d" !rono "tr&! # 6r# d" 7o(t'r&&d& "r&t"(or *t&&n+" 6"!&#(" #!" o d"6(&n' do7#d'. M' r#r"# t& 6 ( & &n tr "nt" d" !"# orn&!'r&" d&n !" Bn !" #& 6r"!& "$ n n #& !' # # t#(# 7"r& &!#r"# ("%&(or !# 0#("$ d#r 6" #!"# t' ' r#r" # # n o ( d"*t&&n+' '-*& d" &n"# !' Bn '*& &d""# d" t& 6$ !#r" t' (# #0# !# 0#(&t'n#t r' <. D" #(t &nt"r&$ (t& "(" d" !o6"r&r& 6r&7&to#r" (# t# &(&r"# r"(#t&7&t'+&& d" !'tr" E&n t"&n nt do nd&t" (+ &t' 6ro%r"!rono "tr&!&. Intr" 6ro%r" "(" *t&&n+"& t"or"t&!" *& 6ro%r" "(" t" n&&n tr "nt#(" " t" o 6"r "!t' r"!&6ro!&t#t".

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n ( !r & 6o & &($ &&nd!' #!" t" "F6"r& "nt" 6r&7&nd tot 7&&tor ( nr*& 7r"od#t'5 # t& &!' 6"ntr !" n" o6r& (# #!"(" ! t"7# '! t" *

6" #0# #!" tor# d' #d"7'r ( & 7"r& &!#t n !#r#!t"r d" %"n"r#(&t#t".C #!"# t# # # n (#- 6ro (" # &nd !+& n&&.) 7. Bonasse, De la methode dans (es Sciences, p. 121. (+aris, :e%i #%ean, 191=).

X) Kan , Krilik d. r. !ernun)t (#usg. Kirc6mann, 8 #u$%), p. 21J.

s) ;o 6ar . F rauss u. orneD, Der Analogie egri)) in der modernen Ph#sik (ErMenn nis, B. I).

G) :rancis Bacon, o&um /rganum. ;ie&-g, ! er Fr. *aco &on !erulan and die 4ethode der atur)orschnng (18>A).

Y) Qo6n F uar ?i%%, "#steme de Logi9ue, I.

6) ;ouis ;iard, Logi9ue, p. 121.

7) Edmond Bou D, La &eriie scienti)i9ue. "a %oursuite, (+aris, 19=8), p. @8 şi urm.



L E C Ţ I A WW III-#

54. Ernes Ensc%angon, La notion de tem%s, tem%s %h#si9ue et relati&ite. (+aris,19A8).INDUCŢIUNEA ŞI GENERALI AREA. ) Ind !+& n"#$ #*# !" t" d" &n&t' Bn (t" #n #(" d" Lo%&!'$ " !on nd' #6ro#6" !o6"r#+& n"# d! %"n"r#(&0#r"$ 6" !#r" o ! no#*t" d&n , & o(o%&" *& " t" o o6"r#+& n" d" n#t r' 6 & o(o%&!'. Intr #d"7'r$ ! nd 6 n" Bnd" &n&+&# &nd !+& n&& #6t ( n #& #( tr"!"r&& d"(# 6#rt&! (#r (# d"(# ! no ! t (# n"! no ! t$ 6r&n #!"# t# n n"-# d"6'rt#t ! t *& d" 6 +&n d" n!+& n"# %"n"r#(&0'r&&$ !#r" " %' "*t" Bn or&!" &nt" o "*& 'r' d" !#r" n #r & 6o & &(' '!#r !"# #& "(" "nt#r' 6r"7"d"r" 6r#!t&!'. An& #("(" &n "r&o#r" o ( & ! no ! *& "(" #!"# t' n!+& n"%"n"r#(&0#r". ='r' o # " "n"# n!+& n" 6 & o(o%&!' n #r & 6o & &(Bn!"6 t d" *t&&n+'$ &" d" o *t&&n+' r d& "nt#r'.



METODOLOGIA 1J

Ind !+& n"# 6r" 6 n" %"n"r#(&0#r"# 6 & o(o%&!'$ ! o 6r" 6 n!"("(#(t" o6"r#+& n& (o%&!"$ d#r "# " t" !"7# #& (t d"! t o & 6(%"n"r#(&0#r". Ind !+& n"# " t" "tod# d" r#+&on# "nt !#r" n" !ond !" '%' & ("%'t r# (o%&!' d&ntr" r"0 (t#t"(" "F6"r&"n+&& no# tr" &nd&7&d#d"7'r r&(" n&7"r #(" Bn(' ntr ( !'ror# r"0 (t#t"(" "F6"r&"n+&& B*& %'!o 6("t' "F6(&!#r". A(t &nt"r&$ r"d ' &&nd (# %"n"r#(&0#r" "# !on nd#$ 6r"! # 7'0 t$ ! r#+&on# "nt ( d" & 6(' #n#(o%&".G"n"r#(&0#r"# 6r&n #n#(o%&" n 6or"*t" Bn+"("%"r"# r"0 (t#t"(or n"F6"r&"n+" '! t"$ !& "# ('r%"*t" n #& "r# d" #6(&!#r"$ # #!" t"Bn+"("%"r&$ tr"! nd-o d"(# "F6"r&"n+" ! no ! t" (# "F6"r&"n+" n"! no !Con t#t$ . "F. d" ! t7# t& 6 n "no "n A$ !#r" " 6rod !" d 6' !"!ond&+& n&(" #$ $ !$ d nt d#t"5 d#!' &n"$ 'r' ' d# #t"n+&!ond&+& n&(or #$ $ !$ d$ !on t#t d&n no "no "n ( A$ #t n!& d"(# *t& t" d&n tr"! t B & &# dr"6t ( ' # &r !' *& d" d#t# #!"# t#$ !ond&+&#$ $ !$ d$ # tr" &t ' " 6rod !'. A!"# t# " t" o & 6(' %"n"r#(&0#r"$ !#r" o 6o#t" #!" 6r&n #n#(o%&" or&*&!" &nt"$ &" ! t d" n"d"6r&n!"r!"t'r&(" *t&&n+& &!". Co6&( ( ! nd &# ( n# dr"6t n "(&n#r #& #r&# !"# orn&! ( dr"6t n &! #n& #($ #!" o d"!#t' %r"*&t'$ d#r n 6'!'t &"*t" d&n 6 n!t ( d" 7"d"r" #( %"n"r#(&0'r&& 6 & o(o%&G"n"r#(&0#r"# 6 & o(o%&!' n " Bn%r& "*t" d" 7#(o#r"# (o%&!' # # &r(# !#r" "# # n%" 5 &nd !+& n"# to! #& d" #!"# t# " Bn%r& "*t". Ind !+!"r"$ !# #d"7'r ( (# !#r" " # n%" 6r&n %"n"r#(&0#r" ' 6or"# !'Bn+"("%"r"# r"0 (t#t"(or "F6"r&"n+&& d"(# !#r" # 6("!#t. D#!' "no "n ( A

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METODOLOGIA 1J9

&nd !+& n" !o 6("t' *& d" &nd !+& n" &n!o 6("t'5 d" !" n"or& "# !on nd' ! "tod"(" "F#!t" *& #(t" or& n .

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INDUCŢIUNEA IN ŞTIINŢELE =I ICO-C IMICE. ) In- d !+& n"#d&n *t&&n+"(" &0&!o-! & &!" n " o6"r"#0' Bn #!"("#*& !ond&-#7or# &("$ !# &nd !+& n"# d&n M#t" #t&!'. O &"!t ( *t&&n+"(or &

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,ROPAPILITATEA IN INDUCŢIUNE. ) Bnd" n 6"ntr !r"#r"# d"&6ot"0" " t" !on7&n%"r"# Bn ord&n"# !on t&t t&7' # n#t r&& 6" !#r"! (t&7#t-o n"Bntr"r 6t Bn &nt"# no# tr' 6ro%r" ( *t&&n+"&. =&"!#r" ('r%!"r! ( & d" ! no*t&n+"$ Bn o+&t" d" 6r"7"d"r"$ #d !" ! &n" o Bnt'r&r#!" t"& !on7&n%"r& *& ! "# totd"od#t' o Bn!r"d"r" !r" ! nd' Bn r"0 (t#t"("r#+&on# "nt ( & 6r&n &nd !+& n". Ord&n"# !on t&t t&7' # n#t r&& nBn ' Bn to#t" do "n&&(" *t&&n+"& Bntr n %r#d "%#( d" "7&d"n+'. E#d" &n&t' Bn od &d"#( Bn M#t" #t&!'5d" t ( d" (& 6"d" Bn Şt&&n+"(" &! & &!" *& Şt&&n+"(" n#t r#("5 ! tot ( 7#% Bn Şt&&n+"(" or#(" *& o!

M#t" #t&!'$ 6r&n d" &n&+&"$ ord&n"# " t" d ' (# &n &n&t. In *t&&n+! & &!" *& *t&&n+"(" n#t r#("$ ord&n"# " t" #*"0#t' 6" ("%& !# 0#("$ord&n"# !# 0#(&t'+&& Bn '*&$ d#!' " t" n tr&!t d"t"r &n& # n 6 ' (# Bndo&#(' *& or "#0' o &"!t d" d& ! +&". In *t&&n+"(" or#(

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" 7"r& &!' Bn ! t"7# !#0 r& 6"ntr !# "# ' &# !#r#!t"r ( d" ("%"57"r& &!#r"# '! nd - " totd"# n# &nt#( *& n "F6"r& "nt#(5 Bn !"("(#(*t&&n+" Bn ' &n "r"n+# #r" n"7o&" d" # & 7"r& &!#t' Bn (t" !#0 r& *&#t n!& n # n%" # ( # !#r#!t"r ( d" ("%".

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r"%& n"$ Bn !#r" "( # ! 6'r#t o o*&". O 6ro (" ' d" M"t"oro(o%&"$ (#"( ! (t" #(t"(" d&n Şt&&n+"(" n#t r#(".

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METODOLOGIA 1 8

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n& or &0#r"# # tr#!+& n&& *& 6r&n !(# & &!#r"$ #!"*t& o# "n& d" 6ot n&!&od#t' ' 6 n' !' o o "r7#+&" Bn 6( (" " t" d" 6r& o . S&% r#n&nd !+& n&& (or !r"*t" ! n 'r ( !#0 r&(or o "r7#t". E# " t" #!""# 6"!#r" o ! no#*t" d&n !#(! ( ( 6ro # &(&t'+&(or.

In !"(" #& (t" !'r+& d" Lo%&!' n " +&n" Bn d"# n "# ' d"%r#d ( d& "r&t d" &% r#n+' 6" !#r" B( #r" &nd !+& n"# d 6' ! "# " #6Bn M#t" #t&!'$ Bn *t&&n+"(" =&0&!o-C & &!"$ # Bn *t&&n+"(" !oLo%&!"n&& d" o &!"& !on &d"r' &nd !+& n"# !# o "tod' &nd& "r"o &"!t ( & *t&&n+"&. A!"# t# Bn ' " t" o "ro#r"$ d 6' ! # 7'0 t. N#t r#



o &"!t ( & *t&&n+"& d"t"r &n' "tod# *& 6r&n r #r" d"t"r &n' *& &%&nd !+& n&&. A!" t"& "ror& " d#tor"#0'$ Bntr" #(t"("$ "F#%"r'r&(" ( & M&(($ !#r" !"r" 6"ntr &nd !+& n"# d&n M#t" #t&!' #!"("#*& !ond&+& n&*& 6"ntr &nd !+& n"# d&n *t&&n+"(" n#t r#(" !on!r"t" *& # n%" # t

nd"0" &% r#n+# %"n"r#(&0'r&(or #t" #t&!" 6" n 'r ( o6"r#+& n&(or !#(! ( '7 r*&t" Bn od " "!t&7Q Q<.



L E C Ţ I A W W W- #

56. ) Q. F . ?i%%, "#steme de Logi9ue, I ( 8>>) F an%eD Qe ons,=he principles o/

Science (;ondon, 18JG), I, p. 2@=—A12.CLASI=ICAREA ARTI=ICIALĂ ŞI NATURALĂ SAU GENETICĂ. TI,URILE.-)N to#t" *t&&n+"(" n#t r#("!on!r"t" # n% 6 n' ' 6o#t' or (# ("%& !# 0#(" 6r&n !#r" ' " "F6(&!"Bn('n+ &r"# *& !or"(#+& n"# d&ntr" o &"!t"(" 6" !#r" "(" (" t d&#0'5 (t"

'r%&n" ! (# d" !r&"r"# #!" tor o &"!t". D" #(t &ntr"(&$ ! &#r *& #!"(d&ntr" *t&&n+"(" n#t r#(" !on!r"t"$ !#r" # n% ' 6o#t' or (# ("%& !# 0## Bn do "n& ( (or Bn!' (t" d" 6'r+&r& Bn !#r" tr" &" ' " (+ "#! & 6(# d" !r&"r". D" !r&"r"#$ d" 6r" !#r" 7or & #!&$ o Bn+"("%" !#r"0 #r" 6" ! t " 6o#t" d" "F#!t' # tot !" !on+&n" &nt &+&#5 "# " t"o#r"! 6r& # tr#d !"r" # &nt &+& n&& Bntr o r"6r"0"nt#r" # tr#!t'. Şt&d" '7 r*&t' n " (+ "*t" ! & 6(# d" !r&"r"$ !& "# 7r"# ' d"# ("%&d 6' !#r" " "F6(&!' &nt &+&# ( !r r&(or.D" !r&"r"#$ !# *& &nd !+& n"#$ 6r" 6 n" !(# & &!#r"#. N 6o+& d"

( !r $ 'r' !# #& Bn#&nt" ' & !(# & &!#t 6ro6r&"t'+&(" # o "nt"("" "n+&#("5 'r' !# ( !r ( ' &" #*"0#t Bntr o !(# ' d" #(t" ( !r r&# " 'n'to#r" ( &. C ! t !(# & &!#r"# " t" #& & t" #t&!'$ ! #t t *d" !r&"r"# " t" #& *or d" '! t. C(# & &!#r"# Bn '$ d" !#r" #r" n"7o&d" !r&"r"#$ n " t" #!""#*& ! !(# & &!#r"# d" !#r" #r" n"7o&" &nd !+&C(# & &!#r"# d" !#r" #r" n"7o&" d" !r&"r"# 6o#t" ' &" *& #rt& &!&#('$ 6o#t" ' &" o !(# & &!#r" !" n #r" Bn 7"d"r" ("%'t r# !# 0#(' d&ntr"( !r r&(" 6" !#r" "# (" !(# & &!'$ ! . "F. !(# & &!#r"# n"& & (&d 6' or #t ( !'r+&(or$$ # d 6' ! (o#r"5 6" ! nd !(# & &!#r"# d" !#r" #r

n"7o&" &nd !+& n"# " t" totd"# n# o !(# & &!#r"!" #r" Bn 7"d"r" ("%'t




!# 0#(' d&ntr" ( !r r&(" !(# & &!#t". C(# & &!#r"# #!"# t# d&n r ' " t" 6ro6r& 0& *t&&n+& &!'. In *t&&n+# 0oo(o%&"& *& ot#n&!"&$ "#n#t r#('$ &&nd!' d !" (# "F6(&!#r"# "7o- ( +& n&& 6" !#r" o r "#0' n#t rBn !r"#r"# 6"!&&(or$ Bn d"o " &r" d" !"# #rt& &!&#('$ !#r" n #r" d"#!"# t' 6r"o! 6#r". =&&nd!' ("%&(" !# 0#("$ 6" !#r" (" !# t' &nd !+& n"# Bn

*t&&n+"(" n#t r#(" !on!r"t"$ nt totd"# n# *& ("%&(" %"n"0"& or%#n&!(# & &!#r"# #!"# t# #& 6o#t" & n &t' *& %"n"t&!'$ #*# ! o *& n. ndt 1<.

EF" 6( ( !(# &!$ d&n !#r" 6 t" Bn+"("%" d& "r"n+# d&ntr" !(# & &#rt& &!&#(' *& !(# & &!#r"# n#t r#(' # %"n"t&!'$ n&-1 o "r' *t&&n+# 0In #!"# t' *t&&n+'$ Bn#&nt" d" &ntrod !"r"# &6ot"0"& "7o( - +& n&& 6!(# & &!#r"# #n& #("(or n 6 t"# & d"! t #rt& &!&#('$ #d&!' o !(# &

'! t' ! !o6 ( d" # * r# no "n!(#t r# d& "r&t"(or #n& #("$ 'r' n&!&o 6r"o! 6#r" d" Bnr d&r"# # &(&#+& n"# #!" tor#. D 6' &ntrod !"r"# Bn

&6ot"0"& "7o( +& n&& 6"!&&(or$ o &6ot"0' !#r" d" ! &d" (#r% d&nd !+& n&&$ !(# & &!#r"# d&n #rt& &!&#(' " tr#n or ' Bn %"n"t&0oo(o% ( n " #& 'r%&n"*t" (# !#t#(o%#r"# or%#n& "(or$ !& "( 7r"# ! no# !' r#6ort ( d" &(&#+& n" d&ntr" d& "r&t"(" (or or ". In !(# & &#rt& &!&#('$ or&*&!" !#r#!t"r # 6r&n!&6& 6o#t" ' &" ( #t dr"6t !(# & &!'r&&. A*# . "F. ,(&n& B 6'r+"# to#t" #n& #("(" Bn > A; #t&(&

o(#t&(&# ? *& > T"rr" tr&# ? d 6' "d& ( Bn !#r" "(" tr'&# . In !(# & &!n#t r#('$ # %"n"t&!' " #r" Bn 7"d"r" !#r#!t"r"(" or%#n&!" #& 6r&n!&6#(*& 6" #0# #n#(&0"& !o 6("t" # #!" tor# " #*"#0' Bn #!""#*& !(# '

or%#n& "(" Bnr d&t"$ !#r" 6ot & !on &d"r#t" !# d" !&n0 nd d&n #!"




or ' +V. C #(t" ! 7&nt"$ !(# & &!#r"# n#t r#(' # %"n"t&!' t' Bntr 6"r "!t #!ord ! %"n"r#(&0'r&(" +&n t" 6" &nd !+& n".

C nd !(# & &!#r"# n 6o#t" & r&d&!#t' 6r&n &nd !+& n" 6 n' (# ("%"F6(&!#r" !# 0#('$ d#r " t" tot *& #& (t d"! t o d" !r&"r"$ "# n" d'#t n!& #!""# !" " n "*t" d" n#t r#(& t: t&6 r&(". T&6 r&(" n nt ("

!# 0#("$ d#r nt tr !t r& d&n# &!" 6"r #n"nt" 6" !#r" (" r"%' & Bn7#r&"t#t"# n#t r&&5 "(" +&n (o! ( ("%&(or !# 0#("$ 6 n' ! nd #!" t"# %' &t". No+& n"# d" t&6 " r&d&!' d"# 6r# no+& n&& d" !(# '$ 6" !#7" Bn !(# & &!#r"# d" !r&6t&7'. E# " t" d" &n&t' 6r&n !o 6#r#+"F" 6(#r"(or #*"0#t" 6" #!"(#*& 6(#n d" ord&n"$ &#r n 6r&n #r"#!#r#!t"r"(or$ #*# ! %' & no+& n"# d" !(# ' Bn Lo%&!##r& tot"(&!'. A t "( no+& n"# d" t&6 " t" ! " #t' ' &" d" n #r" # torE *t&&n+"(or n#t r#(" Bn 7&&tor$ Bn 6r"%'t&r"# "F6(&!'r&(or !# 0#("3<.

/1

) <i%6e%m <und , Logik, II, Ers e #& . p. GJ şi urm. (189G).a

) ;. +%a e, Prin1i%iender "#stematik mit esonderer *erucksichligung des "#stems der Piere. (In inne erg:s Kultur der-Gegenwart. eu&ner, 191G), p. 1==.

s) 0ari 3. 7empe% u. +. ppen6eim, Der =#%us egri)) im Lichte der neuen Logik.(;eiden, 19A>),



L E C Ţ I A WWWI-#

63. t OPIECTUL ŞTIINŢELOR MORALE ŞI SOCIALE. ) A( 6#tr ("# %r 6 d" *t&&n+"$ ! n o &"!t #& !o 6(&!#t d"! t #( %r 6 r&(o 6r"!"d"nt"$ " o! 6' d" #6t"(" ("t"*t&$ #n& " t#+& n& o "n"*t&. In%r 6 ( #!" t# &ntr': , & o(o%&# ! to#t" r# r&(" *& #6(&- !#+& n&(" *t&&n+"(" o!&#("$ r&d&!"-*& or#("5 *t&&n+"(" & tor&!" *& #r "o

&(o(o%&#$ "t!. To#t" #!" t" *t&&n+" B*& Bndr"#6t' !"r!"t'r&(" Bn 6"!&#( ! no#*t"r"# #6t ( & ("t" ! ! !#r" " !o 6("t"#0' 7&#+# &nd&7&0&(oo# "n& *& # o!&"t'+&(or (or *& !#r" #!" !# 7&#+# #!" tor &nd&7&0& *& o

' #6#r' Bntr o #(t' ( &n' d" ! t " t" #!""# # 7&"+ &to#r"(or d" !#r" "o! 6' *t&&n+"(" n#t r#(". o d"n & #!" t Bntr"% %r 6 d" *t&&n+" !t"r "n ( d": Şt&&n+"(" or#(" *& o!&#(".O &"!t ( no&(or *t&&n+" " t" #& !o 6(&!#t *& Bn #!"(#*& t& 6 #& !on!d"! t o &"!t ( t t ror *t&&n+"(or tr#t#t" #& . =#6t ( ("t" ! " t"$Bntr #d"7'r$ ("%#t d" #6t"(" #t"r&#("$ 'r' !# ' 6o#t' & Bn ' "F6(&!#t 6r&n

#6t"(" #t"r&#(". ,"ntr !# ' # n%' (# "F6(&!#r"# ( &$ &nt"# tr" &" 'o(o "# !' "tod" no& d" !"r!"t#r"$ 6" ( n%' !"(" o(o &t" (# "F6(&!#r"##6t"(or #t"r&#("5 !'!& #6t ( ("t" ! " 6r"0&nt' !# n tot !on t&t &t d"#t"r&" *& 6&r&t$ Bn !#r" &nt"# n 6o#t" 6'tr nd" ! Bn+"("%"r"#$ d"! t

!ond ' d" n r#+&on# "nt 6otr&7&t n & 6(#n ! tot ( no . A!" t 6(#n !tot ( no d !" "( o#r" (# # &r #r"# n & d"t"r &n& ("t" !$ d"o " &t d"!"( #t"r&#( In d"t"r &n& ( #t"r&#( &ntr'$ !# 6r&n!&6#(" t" "& r& d"

+&n"r"$ &6ot"0# d" #t t"# or& 7"r& &!#t' # !on t#n+"& "n"r%&"& d&n n 6r"! *& &6ot"0# n & tr#t n& or #( #6t"(or #t"r&#("5 do '&6ot"0!#r" 6 n *t&&n+# Bn 6o & &(&t#t" ' tr#n or " d"t"r &n& ( #t"r&Bntr n (#n+ d" d"6"nd"n+" !#nt&t#t&7"$ Bn !#r" (#n+ tot ( " r"6r"0&nt' 6r&n



L E C Ţ I A WWWI-#

n 'r *& ' r' "F#!t'. D"t"r &n& ( ("t" ! " 6o#t" o#r" *& "(6r& &n& 6" # " "n& &6ot"0" Con t#n+# "n"r%&"& ("t"*t& o 6 t"

! r nd t'%'d & d"! t # &r #5 &#r &6ot"0# n& or &t'+&& tr#t ( & #("t"*t& n " t" d"(o! 7"r& &!#t'. A t "( !"(" do ' &6ot"0" nd# "nt#("

!#r& & 6(& &!' #*# d" (t "F6(&!#r"# #6t"(or #t"r&#("$ Bn no # %r 6' d*t&&n+" (&6 " !. D&n #!"# t' !# 0'$ 6 & o(o%&#$ o!&o(o%&#$ #r "o& tor&#$ &(o(o%&#$ (&t"r#t r#$ "t!.$ n # #!""#*& * r&n+' Bn %"n"r#&nd !+& n&(or (or$ 6" !#r" o # !"("(#(t" *t&&n+"5 "(" tr" " ! ' 6' tr"0"

#6t"(or t d&#t" !#r#!t"r ( d" #6t" 6#rt&! (#r" # &nd&7&d #(" *& .# t'-*& !o 6(&!" & t" #t&0#r"# (or. C t"7# "F6"r&"n+" 6ot & &!&"n

*t&&n+"(or &0&!o-! & &!" 6"ntr !# #!" t"# ' t# &("# !' ("%"# !# 0#(' n & "no "n$ &&nd!' # " "n& "F6"r&"n+"$ 6" #0# &6ot"0"& tr#tn& or #( n#t r&&$ 6ot & %"n"r#(&0#t"5 6" ! nd Bn *t&&n+"(" or#(o!&#("$ nd" o # " "n"# &6ot"0' n "F& t'$ 7"r& &!#r"# "F6"r&"n+"(or'! t" n " t" Bndr"6t'+&t' d"! t d 6' r"6"t#r"#$ # 6rod !"r"# t t ror

"F6"r&"n+"(or d" #!"(#*& "(5 ) #d&!' o &t #+& n" #& %r"# d"! t Bn or&!##(t# *t&&n+' d&n %r 6 ( *t&&n+"(or n#t r#(".

," ( n%' #!" t !#r#!t"r d" !o 6(&!#+& n"$ o &"!t ( *t&&n+"(or or#(" *&o!&#(" #& #r" *& n !#r#!t"r 6#rt&! (#r d" !on!r"t&0#r": "no "n (

("t" ! t' Bn ("%'t r' ! d" t&n ( "F& t"n+"& no# tr"$ #*# !' "( n 6o#t" & 6 6" (&n&# t& 6 ( & # tr#!t$ !rono "tr&!$ !#r" " !!"d" Bn odo o%"n *& &nd" &n&t$ ! nt 6 " "no "n"(" #t"r&#("5 d" '* r#r"# (

" #!" 6" (&n&# d" t&n ( &$ #d&!' 6" (&n&# !ont&n%"n+"(or$ #*# !' &Bnt 6&n' o #r" d& &! (t#t" ' *&-( r"6r"0&nt" "F#!t$ n"! '-(Bn(o! &# !' ! & o( r& # tr#!t". L !r r&(" *& "no "n"("$ !#r" #!



L E C Ţ I A WWWI-#

o &"!t ( =&0&!"&$ " ! r' d" o &nt &+&" #6ro#6" !on t#nt'$ (# !#r" n" 6 t" r" "r& d" ! t" or& (" t d&" $ 6" ! nd #6t ( ("t" ! &&nd #& o%#t Bn "(" "nt" !on!r"t"$ n 6o#t" & 6r&n Bntr o &nt &+&" !on t#nt'5 " t" Bntr o 7"*n&!' d"7"n&r"1<.



A!" t" do ' 6#rt&! (#r&t'+& #(" o &"!t"(or *t&&n+"(or or#(" *& o!&"F6(&!' *& !#r#!t"r ( "todo(o%&"& #!" tor#. In "tod"(" *t&&n+"(or or#("o!&#(" 7o Bnt (n& #& (t' 7#r&"t#t" *& #& (t' (& "rt#t". O &"!t

*t&&n+& &! &&nd #!& 6r"# !o 6(&!#t *& 6r"# !on!r"t$ &nt"#o "n"# !' tr' d"6 n' #& (t' n!' *& #& (t' &n%"n&o0&t#t". A!& &07or (

&6ot"0"(or n 7&n" d&ntr o &n% r' d&r"!+& n"$ !& d&n #& (t" d&r"#!""# !" " !('d"*t" # t'0& " d'r ' ! (t' * r&n+' &n"$ *&

6"!&#(&*t&& r& !' #d" "or& '-*& ! "(t &# !' n!# 'r' r"0 (t#t. N"%r"*&Bn %r 6 r&(" !"(or(#(t" *t&&n+" r& ! ( o ( & d" *t&&n+' " t" d" t ( d"

Po (" # !r& od#t' n ! r&o tr#t#t: >D" "F6"r& "nt& ; & non !!"d nt?2EF6"r&"n+"(" !#r& n r" *" !<5 *& d#!' #(t!&n"7# #r & ' #& !r&" # t'0# " "n"# tr#t#t$ #r %' & d" &% r n o%#t #t"r&#( Bn & tor&# t t*t&&n+"(or 33 34<. D#r n&!'&"r& r& ! ( n"r" *&t"& n " t" #*# d" #r" !# Bn*t&&n+"(" or#(" *& o!&#(". A!& n"r" *&t# 6#r" d" #*# n#t r'$ Bn! t d&ntr" #!"& !#r& " d"d&!' #!" tor *t&&n+" n #& Bn!"#r!' "F6(&!'r& &6ot"0"$ !& " "n+&n tr&!t B #r!&n# d" # !o("!+&on# d" !r&"r& 6" ! 6o#t" d" n "ro# "$ 'r' ' r&*t" !"# #& &!' %"n"r#(&0#r". D&n #!"# t'!# 0' *& n"Bn!r"d"r"# 6" !#r" o #r" #r"(" 6 (&! Bn #!"# t' d&n r '

%r 6' d" *t&&n+".

33 ) 0. 5"du%escu ?o ru,=im% 0i Destin. (Bucureş i, 19G=).34) Edmond Bou D, La &erile scienti)i9ue. "a %oursuite. (+aris, 19=8), p. @A.



L E C Ţ I A WWWII-#

64. ,ROPLEMA LEGILOR IN ŞTIINŢELE MORALE ŞI SO-CIALE. ) Şt&&n+"(" n#t r#("$ o "r7' . ndt1<$ n # d#t d&ntr o- d#t'no+& n&& d" ("%" Bn+"(" ( 6" !#r"-1 #r" #!"# t' no+& n" # t'0&. , n'# n%" (# Bn+"(" ( d" # t'0& # tr"! t 6r&n tr"& t#d&&. In 6r& ( ("%"# n#t r#(' " t" "F6r" & n"# 7o&n+"& n & ("%& &tor$ Bn !#0 ( d"

6r" ( & ("%& &tor !#r" # ordon#t Bntr"% ( ! r #( n#t r&&. ,"ntr D" !#rt" *& 6"ntr n N"]ton$ ("%& n#t r#(" nt 6r&n!&6&&(" !#r" n 6ot d"d !" d&n #(t" 6r&n!&6&& 6"r&o#r"$ !& 6orn" ! d&r"!t d&n 7o&nD n"0" . In #!" t Bn+"(" $ no+& n"# d" ("%" " t" !oordon#t' #F&o "(or

#t" #t&!"$ !#r" *& "(" "r# !on &d"r#t" !# #d"7'r r& d&7&n". ,r"!#F&o "(" d# "F& t"n+"& t#t&!" o nor ' %"n"r#(' d" # &$ tot #*# *& ("%d# &*!'r&& d&n n#t r' o r"% ('$ !#r" d 6' ! 0&!" L"& n&0$ " "F6(&d&n 6 n!t d" 7"d"r" t"o(o%&!$ !# o "F6r& #r" # &nt"n+& n&(o Cr"#tor (&#r n "!#n&!.



METODOLOGIA @ 1

A!" t t#d& $ o#r"! t"o(o%&!$ r" #r!#t d" . ndt$ " t" Bn '!ont&n #r"# #t&t d&n"& 6" !#r" o #7 " "r' % nd&tor&& #nt&!& #+' d" L,"ntr "r# (&t *& 6"ntr &(o o && to&!&$ Lo%o " t" r#+& n"# tr#n !# ord&n"& d&n n&7"r 5 &#r (# , &(on$ (# n"o6(#ton&!& *& (# %no t&! 7 nt ( ( & D n"0" Bn *&. A tr" &t tr"& "!o(" d" n!' *t&&n+& 6"ntr !# #!" t t#d& t"o(o%&! ' &" d"6'*&t *& ' " # n%' (# n Bn+!#r" #!" d&n ("%" o & 6(' "d&" t#t& t&!' o +&n t' 6" #0' d" ' r'tor&&n tr "nt#("$ #*# ! " t" # t'0& Bn+"(" ( 6" !#r"-1 B 6'rt'*" ! o# "n&&d" *t&&n+'. "! "# #t&t d&n" ! %r" # 6 t t & Bn ' Bn(o! &t'. Id""$#$("%"# 6r" 6 n" n ("%& &tor*& !' ("%& &tor ( t' d"# 6r# o# "n&(or !'ro"( (" #!" ("%"#$ " t" #*# d" Bnr'd'!&n#t' Bn &nt"# o" "n"# !' Bn! t 6"r & t"n+# "& " "F6(&!# *or. C"7# #& (t: tr" &" ' n" #*t"6t' !' "#7# 6"r & t# *& 6" t" t& 6 ( no tr . ,o6 (#r&t#t"# d" !#r" " ! r' t"or&&(no& d" =&0&!'$ Bn r # !"r!"t'r&(or d" &!ro &0&!' *& #& ! d"o " &r" d"Bntr" &n+#r" !#r" " #!" d" or (# !"# no '$ !' ("%&(" !# 0#(" nt

& 6(" ("%& t#t& t&!" *& n&!&d"! &n"For# &("$ ' n n" #!' &( 0&7" t nt ( t"or&&(or no&$ (# (+& " # ! nd !r"d&n+"(" 7"! &. O n "ro#*!o#(' d" 6 (&!&*t& Bn #(" &(o o &"&$ d"n &r"# d" #t"r&#!ont&n ' 7"! &# "ro#r"$ d"*& "# " 6r"t&nd" # r"6r"0"nt# &(o o &# 7&&torS' 7"d" Bn !" !on & t' #r% "nt ( #t"r&#(& ( &$ 6"ntr # t# &(&

r ' #d"7'r ( (# !#r" ' r' n" .

65. CONCE,ŢIA MATERIALISTĂ.-)P#0#+& 6" !r"d&n+# !' ("%&("nt d&!t#t" d" 7o&n+# n"& 6 t"r& d&7&n"$ !#r" t' d&n!o(o d" ord&n

n&7"r ( &$ o# "n&& d" *t&&n+' d&n "!o( ( #( W II-("# *& #( W I(I-("6"!&#(&t#t"# #t" #t&!"& *& # "!#n&!&& Bn 6r& ( r nd$ # n " "r' (#

d"t"r &n& ( & n&7"r #(. D 6' #!"# t' t"or&"$ to#t" #6t"(" d&n n#t r'd"(# !"(" #& "(" "nt#r" (# !"(" #& !o 6(&!#t"$ nt % 7"rn#t" d" ("%&

"!#n&!" &n"For# &("$ #d&!' d"(# !#r" n " t" ! &6 d" # #t"r". Cor6 r&("!"r"*t&$ !# *& !or6 r&(" d" 6" 6' nt5 #t"r&# !# *& ("t ($ n &" o !(&d&n or &t"(" (or &F#t" d" ("%". A!"( !#r" (" ! no#*t" ("%"#$ (" 6o#t" *& 6r"7"d" ! r (. O &nt"(&%"n+' 6"r&o#r'$ 6" !#r" !ont& 6or#n&& # n &o: o &nt"(&%"n+' !# # ( & L#6(#!"$ d 6' n "(" &( tr ( & #t" #t&!&#n$ !## !ontr& &t Bn !"# #& #r" ' r' (# #!r"d&t#r"# d"t"r &n& ( & n&7"r #($ #7 nd Bn ! no*t&n+# # to#t" ("%&(" "!#n&!"$ 6o#t" ' 6r"7#d' 6 n'*& &*!#r"# #to &(or d&n !or6 ( n & o . N& &! n !#6' 6r"- *t&&n+"& E!(&6 "(" d&n !ond &t# or#(' # n & o B& nt tot #*# d" ! no ! t"$ !#n& d" 0&(" Bn#&nt"$ Bnto! #& !# *& "!(&6 "(" d" o#r"$ !'!& 6r"0&!"r&("



2=2C. R. MOTRU: LECŢII DE LOGICĂ

# " "n"# &nt"(&%"n+" 6"r&o#r"$ " d"d ! d"(# &n" d&n or ("#t" #t&!" !#r" !on+&n ("%"#. In #!" t" or ("$ d& "r"n+&#("(" d" !#(! (

d# $ o "nt ! o "nt$ #6t"(" r"0"r7#t" 7&&tor ( &.," t"or&# #!" t & d"t"r &n& n&7"r #($ !('d"*t" &(o o ( #t"r&#(

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Bntr ! t (# #0# (or t' # !on t#nt' d" #t"r&" # d" "n"r%&" # n#t r&&L"%"# " t" "F6r" & n"# tr&!t"& "! &7#("n+" d&ntr" "no "n"(" &0&!". L"

" Bnt&nd" # t "( 6" t" Bntr"#%# ( " #t"r&#('. D#r "# " Bnt&nd"$ !ont&n' # &r " &(o o ( #t"r&#(& t *& 6" t" Bntr"#%# ( " ("t"# !'. E

dr"6t$ !' (# #6t"(" ("t"*t&$ Bntr" !# 0' *& " "!t n " !on t#t' r#6ort ( d""! &7#("n+'$ !#r" " !on t#t' "F6"r& "nt#( (# #6t"(" #t"r&#(" *& d" #!""# 6#rt&0#n&& 6r d"n+& #& d"t"r &n& ( & " # +&n d"(# or&!" %"n" 6r&6&t'$ #!"# t# tot *& n B 6&"d&!' 6" &(o o ( #t"r&#(& t ' 6 n' ((o! ( "# ("t"# !' ! !"# #t"r&#('. Ar% "nt ( 6"ntr !#r" "( #!"#!"# t# " t" Bn ' #( ' 6ro6r& $ n"B 6r t#t d"(# d"t"r &n& : "( # "r7&

&(o o &"& #t"r&#(& t" d&n !"(" #& 7"! & t& 6 r&$ Bn#&nt" d" #or (#t' t"or&# d"t"r &n& ( & d" !'tr" #t" #t&!&"n&& *& "!#n&*t"!o( ( & #( W II-("# *& #( W III-("#. Ar% "nt ( #!" t# " t" +&n t 6

!r"d&n+# !' #6t"(" ("t"*t& n # o "F& t"n+' # (or$ !& nt 6rod " d" ##t"r&#("$ nt n "( d" "6& "no "n"$ d" "no "n" r' # !"(or #t"r&#(". N&!& n "F6"r& "nt n # 7"r& &!#t 6 n' #! #!"# t' !r"d&n+'$ !

to#t" #!" t"# "# # "n+&n t *& " "n+&n" Bn!' Bn d" - 7o(t#r"# & t" "(&(o o &!" *& !on t&t " 6#rt"# or&%&n#(' to! #& # #t"r&#(& ( &.



C #!"# t' !o 6("t#r" #d ' d"t"r &n& ( &$ !on!"6+&# &(o o ( &#t"r&#(& t d" # t'0& 6o#t" & & t" #t&0#t' Bn od ( r 'tor: Un&7"r ($

Bntr ! t " t" !on t&t &t d&n "(" "nt" #t"r&#("$ " t" % 7"rn#t d" ("%&.A!" t" ("%& nt !# 0#("$ &&nd!' "(" "F6r& ' d"6"nd"n+# d" tr&!t'"! &7#("n+' Bntr" !# 0' *& " "!t. In(' ntr ( #!" t & n&7"r $ !on t&t &t d&"(" "nt" #t"r&#("$ " %' "*t" o "n&r"#$ !#r" d' o!#0&" (# d& "r&t"

#n& " t'r& ("t"*t&. O "n&r"# #r" o 7&#+' & tor&!'$ or#('$ ! (t r#('5" r&& "& & t *& ! %"t'5 !o n&!' Bntr" "&5 " #%&t'5 #! r'0 o#&"5

or%#n&0"#0' d 6' #n &t" &d"#( r&5 6ro7o#!'$ Bntr n ! 7 nt$ tot "( ( d"! & 'r& Bn r ( (or. D 6' !" ("%& " !!"d #!" t" ! & 'r& EF& t'

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#t"r&#(& t. L"%&(" nt to#t" d" #!"&#*& n#t r'. M#n& " t'r&(" ("t"*t&o "n&r&& " 6"tr"! Bn(' ntr ( n&7"r ( & #t"r&#( *& nt 6rod ( #!" t

n&7"r #t"r&#($ d"!& "(" n 6ot &d"! t d" #!"&#*& n#t r' ! ("%&(" !# 0#(#(" #t"r&"&. A!""# !" &*!' o "n&r"# *& o #!" ' #& ' o 7&#+' & tor&!'$

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' &nt"r6r"t"0" #6t"(" ("t"*t&$ +&n nd Bn "# ' n"!ont"n&t !' #!" t"#6t" ("t"*t& nt & 6(" "6& "no "n"$ 'r' r"#(&t#t" 6ro6r&". Ş& B*& Bn

6(&n" ! !o6 ($ d#!' #6#r"n+# ("t ( & d" !o6"r' o &( ( #t"r&#(#d"7'r#t. Ad&!'$ Bn (t& ' #n#(&0'$ d 6' &(o o ( #t"r&#(& t$ M"todo(o%&*t&&n+"(or or#(" *& o!&#(" !on & t' Bntr o d&#("!t&!' #t"r&#(& t'5 #d&!' !ontr#r d" ! !r"d"# ,(#to$ !#r" r"d !"# to#t' "todo(o%&# *t&&n+"(or (# od&#("!t&!' &d"#(& t'.

66. CRITICA CONCE,ŢIEI MATERIALISTE. ) S' ( ' 6" r nd#r% "nt"(" 6" !#r" " 6r& &n' !on!"6+&# &(o o &"& #t"r&#(& t" 6"ntr7"d"# "ror&(" 6" !#r" "# (" ! 6r&nd" *& 6"ntr # # n%" Bn r ' (#r"0o(7#r"# 6ro (" "& ("%&(or d&n *t&&n+"(" or#(" *& o!&#(".L# #0# !on!"6+&"& #t"r&#(& ( & t' t"or&# d"t"r &n& ( & n&7"r!#r" tr" &" 6" d"#Bntr"% ( r"7&0 &t'$ &&nd!' #!"# t' t"or&" " t" +&n 6" o %r"*&t' Bn+"("%"r" # !#r#!t"r ( & 6" !#r"-1 # ("%&(" *t&&n+& &!". Dt"or&# d"t"r &n& ( &$ ("%&(" *t&&n+& &!" # !#r#!t"r ( d" #d"7'r# o( t"$ "(" &&nd "F6r" & n"# r"#(&t'+&& Bn '*&. In %' &r"# (or$ &o "n"# !' #r" ro( ( n #& d" o%(&nd'. M&nt"# o%(&nd"*t" #!""# !" " 6"tr"!" Bn n&7"r . D#!' "# o%(&nd"*t" ! t"od#t' &n"F#!t$ #!"# t# n



! & ' n#t r# #d"7'r ( &. Ad"7'r ( r' n" # o( t Bn n#t r# ( &$ !&n% r# r"0"r7'$ !' "& 7# & ! no ! t #& t r0& . A!"# t' r"0"r7' # n%"

Bn ' d&n !" Bn !" #& r"d ' 6r&n #6(&!#+&# M#t" #t&!&&. =or ("("#t" #t&!" 6r"!&0"#0' *& #!!"("r"#0' #!""# !" &nt"# 6r&nd" %r" *&

tr"6t#t. In Bn+"(" ( 6" !#r" d"t"r &n& ( B( d' ("%&(or *t&&n+& &!" nr' n"$ 6r&n r #r"$ n&!&o r ' d&n #!t&7&t#t"# &n+&& Bn '*&. A!"##!t&7&t#t" " t" "(& &n#t' !# &"!t&7'. M&nt"# o "n"# !' #r" d#r (

&r#! (o d" # o%(&nd& r"#(&t#t"# d&n r ( ' $ '! nd Bn ' d" &n" !o 6("t' # tr#!+&". E t" ! 6 t&n+' #*# !"7# C# #*# !"7# ' &" ! 6 t&n+'$ tr" &" ' 6r" 6 n" !' &nt"# o "n"# !' n "F& t' !# r"#(&t#t"Bn(' ntr ( n#t r&&$ !& d"# 6r# n#t r&& *& 'r' n&!& n !ont#!t ! n#t r#$ !'d#!' "# "F& t' Bn(' ntr (n#t r&& !# r"#(&t#t"$ " t" ! n"6 t&n+' !# r"#(&t#t"#"& ' n &n ( "n+"0" #!t&7&t#t"# d" ! no#*t"r" # #d"7'r ( &5

a) T"or&# d"t"r &n& ( & n&7"r #( n #r" n #(t & (o! d" # do7"d&!#r#!t"r ( # d( t #( ("%&(or *t&&n+& &!" d"! t 7"r& &! nd$ 6r&n o "r7#"F6"r& "nt$ r"#(&0#r"# (or. ,"ntr t"or&# d"t"r &n& ( & # ! no#*t"Bn "# n' # 6r"7"d"#. S#7o&r ! " t 6r"7o&r. A!"# t' or (' # #do6t#t-o *&

&(o o ( 6o0&t&7& t A. Go t". D#r 6r"7"d"r"# 6r" 6 n" ' r'to#r"#5 !"( 6 +&n ' r'to#r"# Bn t& 6. C 6o+& ' r# 'r' #6#r#t" d" ' r'to#r"*& #& #(" 'r' ' &" t# &(&t" n&t'+&(" d" ' r' *& 6"r 6"!t&7"(" d&n !#

" #!" ' r'to#r"# C&n" #("%" n&t'+&("5 !&n" #("%" 6"r 6"!t&7"("U(t& "(" !"r!"t'r& *t&&n+& &!" # #7 t !# r"0 (t#t o ! & #r" 6ro nd' Bn*t&&n+# "!#n&!"&$ n #& 6r&n &ntrod !"r"# n"& no& 6"r 6"!t&7"

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b) D#!' d"t"r &n& ( ("%&(or *t&&n+& &!" " t" # o( t *& "( " 6o#Bnt&nd" # 6r# t t ror #6t"(or n#t r&&: # 6r# #6t"(or #t"r&#("$ !# *&# 6r# #6t"(or ("t"*t&$ #t n!& 6r"7"d"r"# !#r" r "#0' d"t"r &-n& ( &$ #r tr" & ' " Bnt&nd' *& # 6r# #6t"(or &nd&7&d #(" ("t"!#0 ( #!" t# # n%" (# &t #+&& d&n !"(" #& # rd". A n%" (# &t!# o ( ' 6r"7#d' 6ro6r& ( ' d" t&n. D#r !" "( d" o " t" #!"(#$ !#r" 6r"7'0 nd !"7# r' d" 6r" &n"$ n #r" '-*& ! & " !ond &t#,r"d" t&n#+&# 6o#t" #!" o &"!t d" !r"d&n+'$ ! !ond&+&# Bn ' !# #!"(# !#r"

t' "#$ ' n -& ! no# !' d" '* r#r"# d" #& Bn#&nt". T"or&#d"t"r &n& ( & n&7"r #( to! #& #!"# t# 6r" 6 n".

0 &nt"(&%"n+' 6"r&o#r'$ !# # ( & L#6(#!"$ *t&" d" 6r" "# tot !" #r" '1 " Bnt 6(" *& "# tot *& #*t"#6t' & 6# & &(' 7&&tor (Q



E t" #!"# t# ! 6 t&n+'



Con!"6+&# #t"r&#(& t' #d#o%' (# #!" t" "F#%"r#+&& #(" t"or&"&d"t"r &n& ( & o "F#%"r#r" Bn 6( $ !#r" o #!" *& #& 6 +&n 7"ro &T"or&# d"t"r &n& ( &$ 6" ! t' 7r" " Bntr" #6t"(" ("t"*t& n !on t#t' "F6"r& "nt#( r#6ort r& d" "! &7#("n+'$ Bn "( ( !"(or d&ntr" #6t"("

#t"r&#("$ (# ' Bn 6"n &" "F& t"n+# ("%&(or !# 0#(" Bn *t&&n+"(" oo!&#(" *& !on &d"r' #!" t" ("%& !# n & 6( d"0&d"r#t. Con!"6+&#t"r&#(& t' n ! no#*t" #!"# t' r"0"r7'. D& 6o-tr&7'$ # &r #r"# ("%&(or

!# 0#(" Bn do "n& ( 7&"+&& ("t"*t&$ !on t&t " 6"ntr "# o 6r"d&("!+&7"d" Bn *t&&n+"(" or#(" *& o!&#(" o & 6(& #6(&!#+&" # d&#("

#t"r&#(& t". Con*t&&n+# *& (& "rt#t"# o ( & n # n&!& n ro(. Tot 6"tr"!" 6" 6' nt !# *& ! dor&n+"("$ 6#t& &(" *& &d"#( r&(" o "n"*t& n#r "F& t#. To#t" #!" t" #n& " t'r& ("t"*t& nt 6"ntr !on!"6+&

#t"r&#(& t' & 6(" r" ("F" #(" #6t"(or #t"r&#(". ," !" B*& Bnt" "&#0'!on!"6+&# #t"r&#(& t' #!"# t' %"n"r#(&0#r" A &r #r"# &n% r'$ ! &#r !" t" o !r"d&n+'$ n " t" n t" "&. ,"ntr o "todo(o%&" *t&&n+& &!'$ &n%t" "& B( d# r"0 (t#t"(" 7"r& &!#t" Bn od "F#!t. C#r" nt r"0 (t#t"("7"r& &!#t" Bn *t&&n+"(" or#(" *& o!&#("$ 6r&n d&#("!t&!# #t"r&#(& t'r"0 (t#t d" "# '. A #r' d" 6"! (#+&& 7#%& &(o o &!"$ *t&&n+"(" or#

o!&#(" n # Bnr"%& tr#t n&!&o ("%" !# 0#('$ 6" #0# !'r"&# ' " 6o#t' #o 6r"7"d"r". 38

c) D#!' Bn ' *t&&n+"(" or#(" *& o!&#(" n # Bnr"%& tr#t ("%& !# 0 6" #0# !'ror# ' " #!' 6r"7"d"r&$ Bn ! & "(" # B o%'+&t ! o

(+& " d" ("%& ! !#r#!t"r *t&&n+& &!$ !#r" n d# 6r"7"d"r&$ d#r d"F6(&!'r& d" 6r" #6t"(" 6"tr"! t". M"r ( #6t"(or 6"tr"! t" B( 6 t""F6(&!#. N 6 t" 6r"7"d" !#r" 7# & ot'rBr"# n & o $ Bn ! t#r" #! t#r" B 6r" r#r"$ d#r d 6' !" ot'rBr"# n" " t" ! no ! t' *& # r"#(&0#t$o 6 t" "F6(&!# 6" d"6(&n. N 6 t" 6r"7"d"# o6"r"(" d" ! (t r' 6" !#r"(" 7# #7"# n 6o6or$ d#r 6"ntr o6"r"(" d" ! (t r' 6rod " #7" o *t&&n+' #! (t r&&$ !#r" n" "F6(&!' 6"ntr !" o6"r"(" nt (# n 6o6or d" n "( *& (##(t 6o6or d" #(t "(. C n ! 7 nt$ Bn do "n& ( 7&"+&& ("t"*t&$ t'6 nn"6r"7'0 t (: #d"7'r r& 6 t" #7"#$ n 6 t" Bn ' #7"# #d"7'r r& d" 6r"7"d"r".. C" Bn " n"#0' o#r" #!"# t# D 6' n "F# "n 6"r &!&#(#!"# t# Bn " n"#0' d 6' n&&$ !' #6t"(" 7&"+&& ("t"*t& n " 6 6r"7"d"# d&n !# 0# !o 6(&!#+&"& d" !ond&+& n& Bn !#r" "(" " 6rod !. U"F# "n #& #6ro nd#t Bn('t r' #!"# t' "F6(&!#r". =#6t"(" ("t"*t& n " 6ot 6r"7"d"#$ ! &#r d#!' "(" " 6"tr"! Bn !ond&+&& 6 +&n !o 6(&!#t": !"7#

38 <. <und , Logik, eine 3ntersuchung cler Princi%iei> der Erkenntniss, II, 2.#& 6. (189@), p. 1A=.



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' " 6rod !'# " "n"# ! & 'r& No& *t& $ !' or+"(" #t"r&#(" n " ! & ' d"(# o0& (# #(t#5 !' "(" nt !on t&t &t" ! &#r d&n "(" "nt" d&n# &!" n& ord 6' Bn '*& !on!"6+&# &(o o &"& #t"r&#(& t"$ !#r"-*& Bnt" "&#0' ("% 6r"7"d"r" to! #& 6" n& or &t#t"# #t"r&"&5 d" !" #t n!& 7&#+# ("t"#" t" ("%#t' d" n"6r"7'0 t$ ! nd "# !# & 6( "6& "no "n #( #t"r&"& #r tr" & ' &" tot #*# d" n& or ' !# *& #t"r&# EF6(&!#r"# n o 6o#t" d#!o 6(&!#+&# d" !ond&+&&$ !& d& "r"n+# d" n#t r' Bntr" ("t *& #t"r&"St #rt M&(($ !#r" Bn Lo%&!# # 6r"!on&0# " o *t&&n+' # Et o(o%&"&$ Bn

" #r#t" ("%&(" !#r#!t"r ( & o "n" !$ # 7'0 t ! to#t' 6"r 6&!#!&t#t"##!"# t' d& "r"n+'. S ("t ( o "n" !$ 0&!" "($ #! ("#0' tr"! t ( (# 6r"0"nt$ #d&!' " t" Bn !r"*t"r" 6r&n "r"d&t#t"$ #*# !' n&!&od#t' or &t#

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&&nd!' #t n!& # d& 6'r t d&n "# n!+& n&(" !r"#to#r" *& # r' # nBn '6t &r&(" & tor&!" !#r" " 6ot d" &n& 'r' r& ! d" # " ! & # d"(# o #(t#.



L E C Ţ I A WWWIII-#

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L E C Ţ I A WWWIII-#

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21=C. R. MOTRU: LECŢII DE LOGICĂ

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L E C Ţ I A WWWI -#

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#t"r&#(& t " t" d"6#rt" d" # " & 6 n"5 #('t r& d" "# *& #& (t d"! t "#$" +&n" &6ot"0# d"t"r &n& ( & 6ro6r& ("t" ! Bn Bn+"(" ( d" In !#dr ( #!" t"& d" # do # &6ot"0" ro( ( &nd&7&d #(&t'+&& " t" 6ro" &nA!" t ro( "F6(&!' to! #& #!""# !" d& "r"n+&#0' Bn('n+ &r"# #6t"(or

("t"*t& d" Bn('n+ &r"# #6t"(or #t"r&#("$ *& #n ": &n#(&t#t"# 6r" 6#r # & #tr# " #6t"(" ("t"*t&$ Bn d"o " &r" d" !"(" #t"r&#("@<.

I6ot"0# d"t"r &n& ( & #t"r&#(& t " B 6#!' *or ! "F!( d"r"#&nd&7&d #(&t'+&& d"(# or&*&!" ro(. C t"od#t' #!"# t' &6ot"0' " B 6#!' Bn! ro( ( &nd&7&d #(&t'+&&$ d#r #t n!& "# #d &t" r# # *& n#+&on#(&t#t"

d" &nd&7&d #(&t'+&$ &#r n 6" o ( &0o(#t. I6ot"0# &n#(& t' 2 # ! 0&!": 6&r&t #(& t'$ &d"#(& t'$ 6"r on#(& t'< #d &t" totd# n# r&nd&7&d #(&t'+&(or5 #t t #( &nd&7&d #(&t'+&(or !on t&t &t" !# &nd&7&d #("$ d#!' #6'r'tor&& "& 6' tr"#0' o ("%'t r' ! do% #t& ( !r"*t&n! t *& ro( ( &nd&7&d #(&t'+&(or !on t&t &t" d&n 6o6o#r"$ n#+& n& *& #6'r'tor&& &6ot"0"& Bn!(&n' 6r" o n& &!#r" # 7&"+&& ("t"*t& ! 7%"n"r" d" 6" 6' nt.



To#t" #!" t" 6o & &(&t'+& *& 6r" "r&n+" n" #! ' Bntr"7"d" d& &! (t'+&!#r" # ' " &0 "# !' #!"& !#r" B*& 6ro6 n ' t d&"0" Bn od "tod&!#6t"(" ("t"*t&. ," t" tot (o! ($ Bn do "n& ( *t&&n+"(or or#(" *& o!&#

!"r!"t'tor ( " # (' (# o r' 6 nt&" d" dr $ ! r& ! ( d" # " r't'!&., & o(o% ( tr" &" ' #("#%' Bntr" d& "r&t"(" &6ot"0"$ d#!' ("t

&nd&7&d #( " t" # n " t" o r"#(&t#t" 5 o!&o(o% ( *& & tor&! ( # ' Bntr" d& "r&t"(" &6ot"0" d#!' o!&"t'+&("$ #d&!' 6o6o#r"("$ nt r"#(&t'+&

&n" t't'to#r"$ ! ("%& 6ro6r&& o!&#(" *& & tor&!"$ # nt &!o 6("F&t'+& !#r" " "F6(&!' d&n ("%&(" #6t"(or ("t"*t& "(" "nt#r"5

r& t ($ or#(& t ($ #r "o(o% ($ "t!.$ tr" &" ' #("#%' Bntr" &6ot"0# n&d" ("t # Bntr"%"& o "n&r& *& Bntr" &6ot"0# d&7"r &t'+&& ("t"*t 6o6o#r" *& r# "5 "!ono & t ( *& t"or"t&!&#n ( 6o(&t&! nt 6 *& ' #("Bntr" #t"r&#(& *& &d"#(& 5 (&t"r#t ($ " t"t&!&#n ($ "t!.$ d" # " "n"#$t"or&& #0#t" 6" o "r7#+& n& *& "F6"r&"n+" *& t"or&& !"r t" d" &n#&d"#( ( &5 Bn r*&t 6" t" tot " t" o Bndo&t' 6"r 6"!t&7' 6"ntr Bndr #r*& +&n"r"# !"r!"t'r&(or *& o Bndo&#(' Bn #!""# !" 6r&7"*t" #("%"r"#&6ot"0"(or$ d&n !#r" n 6o#t" ' r"0 (t" d"! t 6&"rd"r" d" t& 6 *& d" n!'3<.

) <i%%iam F ern, Person und "ache, I (19=>) şi Die di))erenlielle Ps#chologie inihreti melhodischen Grutidlagen (1911).

8) 7. ;o *e, 4ikrokosmos. (deen 1ur aturgeschichte und Geschichte der 4en-schheit. (188G, I a edi ie) #. . Henopo%, Les %rinci%es )ondamentau6 de !histoire(1899) 7. 5icMer , Die Gren1en der naturwissenscha)tlichen *egri )s ildung (19=2)Idem, Kulturwissenscha)t u. aturwissenscha)t. 2 #u$!. 191= #. 3ro en$e%d, Die<ertsch5t1ung in der Geschichte (19=A).s) <. <und , Logik, II, 2 e #& .



L E C Ţ I A WWW -#

68. S UDECĂŢILE DE ALOARE.)D&n o "nt !" *t&&n+"("or#(" *& o!&#(" #d &t &nd&7&d #(&t#t"#$ ) &" &nd&7&d #(&t#t"# !on

d&n ("t"(" o# "n&(or ( #+& Bn 6#rt"$ &" d&n n#+& n& # r# "$ )o "nt !" "(" #d &t &nd&7&d #(&t#t"#$ !# o r"#(&t#t" d" &n" t't'to#r"$

#!" t" *t&&n+" " # #t #t n!& d"(# "( ( d" # d"!# #( *t&&n+"(or n#t r#

Şt&&n+"(" n#t r#(" # Bn 7"d"r" d" !o6"r&r"# ("%&(or !# 0#(" #(" n&7"r ('r' n&!&o 6r"o! 6#r" d" tr" &n+"(" *& # 6&r#+&&(" &nd&7&d #(&o "n"*t&5 "(" nt *t&&n+"(" #6t"(or "t"rn" o &"!t&7"5 6" ! nd *t&&n+"

or#(" *& o!&#("$ d&n o "nt !" &ntrod ! &nd&7&d #(&t#t"# o "n"# !' Bn 6r"o! 6'r&(" (or$ " # #t d"(# #!" t 6 n!t d" 7"d"r". Ind&7&d #(&t#t"#$ 6r&n

&r"# "&$ tr'&"*t" Bntr n d" t&n &#r n Bn "t"rn&t#t"5 d"!& *t&&n+"(Bn!"#r!'$ 6r&n & (o!&r"# &nd&7&d #(&t'+&&$ ' d"# "F6(&!'r& *& ' d"("%&$ n 6ot ' # n%' d"! t (# 6ro # &(&t'+&$ Bn !#r" &nt"r" "(" #!t #(&t# n ro t #( (or #+' d" "t"rn&t#t". d"!#t# d" !#r" " "r7" ! *t&&n+"("

or#(" *& o!&#("? " t" #*# d#r Bn n!+&" d" &nt"r" "(" &nd&7&d #(&t'+&#t#r" "# n 6o#t" d !" d"! t (# t# &(&r"# 7#(or&(or d" &nt"r" o "n" ! *& n(# t# &(&r"# #d"7'r r&(or o &"!t&7" n&7"r #(". Mor#(#$ Dr"6t ($ I tor&E t"t&!#$ L&t"r#t r#$ Ar "o(o%&#$ "t!.$ Bntr ! t #d &t ro( ( &nd&7&d #o "n"*t&$ #d &t *& d"!'+& d" 7#(o#r". ,"ntr "(" #6t"(" *& o &"!t"("n#t r&& nt ! o 7#(o#r" &"!t&7'5 nt r o# "$ nt n"$ nt d 6r"+$ nt no &(" *& # "!t"$ nt !on or " # n &d"#( ( &$ "t!.$ nt !! 7 nt d"!#t" d 6' 7#(o#r"# (or1<.



@1 C. R. MOTRU: LECŢII DE LOGICĂ

P&n" Bn+"(" $ d"!#t# d" 7#(o#r" &nt"r7&n" ! #t t #& 6 +&n Bn %*t&&n+"(or or#(" *& o!&#("$ ! ! t " t" #!& #& !on "!7"nt #6(&!#t' &6o#t"r&#(& t' # d"t"r &n& ( &. =#6t"(" ("t"*t& "F6(&! nd - " !#6t"(" #t"r&#("$ 6r&n ("%& !# 0#(" n&7"r #("$ d"!'+&(" d" 7#(o#r#& # #t n!& ro t. In !#0 ( #!" t#$ 7#(or&(": n$ r' $ r o $ r t$ no

# "!t$ ! 6$ &" t&n$ &d"#($ "(".$ r "#0' ' " Bn(o! &# !' ! d"6"nd"!#nt&t#t&7"$ #*# ! nt Bn(o! &t" #t t"# #(t" d#t" &"!t&7" d&n do "*t&&n+"(or n#t r#(" "F#!t"...

8

D#r$ 6r"! # #& 6 $ " t" %r" # t'0& ' # n%" (# !on t&t &r*t&&n+"(or or#(" *& o!&#(" 6" #0# #6(&!'r&& !on "!7"nt" # &6ot

#t"r&#(& t". S nt #6t" ("t"*t&$ 6" !#r" n (" 6 t" !(# & &!#$ n"!"F6(&!#$ d#!' n r"! r%" (# !r&t"r& ( 7#(or&&. A6(&!#r"# !on "!7"nt' #&6ot"0"& #t"r&#(& t" d"o!# d#t' " t" o & 6(' 6ro & & n"$ # !'r"&r"#(&0#r" o 7# ! no#*t" n #& 7&&tor (Q



METODELE ,SI OLOGIEI. ) D&ntr" *t&&n+"(" ! 6r&n " Bn %r 6 (*t&&n+"(or or#(" *& o!&#("$ , & o(o%&# " t" *t&&n+# !#r" " #6ro6(t d" *t&&n+"(" n#t r#(". In "todo(o%&# , & o(o%&"& 6 t" ' #!"

#6ro#6" # tr#!+& n" d" d"!#t# d" 7#(o#r"$ #& #(" Bn #!""# !" 6r&7"*t" 6#rt"# , & o(o%&"& !#r" " o! 6' ! #6t"(" "(" "nt#r" ("t"*t&. In#!"# t' 6#rt"$ "tod"(" 6 & o(o%&"& nt #!"("#*& !# *& "tod"(""F6"r& "nt#("-d&n *t&&n+"(" n#t r#(". , & o(o% ($ Bn d"o " &r" Bnn#t r#(& t$ " "r7"*t" *& d" o "r7#+& n"# &nt"rn'$ !#r" n #r" "! &7#("n*t&&n+"(" n#t r#(". O "r7#+& n"# &nt"rn' n " t" 6ro6r& 0& o "tod

&&nd!' "# n " 6o#t" d&r& # d 6' 7o&" *& n " t" 6r& &to#r" d" ' r'to"F#!t"5 o "r7#+& n"# &nt"rn' " t" o #d n!&r" # &nt &+& n&&5 o #d n!

#r" t&(&t#t"$ d#r !#r" n 6o#t" +&n" (o! ( n"& "tod". , & o(o% ( 7#tr" & '-*& !o 6("t"0" o "r7#+& n"# &nt"rn'$ ! d" #(t &ntr"(& *&n#t r#(& t ( B*& !o 6("t"#0' &nt &+& n"# "Ft"rn'. Do ' "tod" & " o "r 6 & o(o% ( & *& #n ": 1< ' 6rod !' Bn od 7o&t "no "n ( ("t" ! 6r#n &t" !ond&+& n& &0&!" & 6 " d" "( *& @< ' o "r7" d&

#n& " t'r& #(" "no "n ( & ("t" ! *& #6o& d&n !o 6#r#+& n"# #!"#n& " t'r& ' &nd !' ("%&(" 6 & o(o%&!". ,r& # "tod' " t" ! r#t

"F6"r& "nt#(' *& " 7# r # Bn to#t" !#0 r&("$ Bn !#r" 6rod !"r"#"no "n ( & ("t" ! t' Bn 6 t"r"# no# tr'5 !"# d" # do # " 7# r # Bn

to#t" !"("(#(t" !#0 r& Bn !#r"6rod !"r"# "no "n ( & ("t" ! n t' Bn 6 t"r"# no# tr'. ," 6r& #$ "tod' ! r#t "F6"r& "nt#('$ o 7o Bntr" &n+#(# t d&"r"# "no "n"(or "(" "nt#r" ("t"*t&5 6" !"# d" # do #$ (#

t d&"r"# "no "n"(or !o 6("F" ("t"*t&3 <.U* r&n+# ! !#r" , & o(o%&# 6o#t" Bntr" &n+# "tod"(" *t&&n+

n#t r#("$ # *& '! t 6" n&& (o%&!&"n& ' !on &d"r" , & o(o%&# !# o n#t r#('$ &#r n !# o *t&&n+' d&n %r 6 ( *t&&n+"(or or#(" o!&#(". In , & o(o%&# #6ro#6" !' n Bntr" &n+"#0' d"!#t# d" 7#(o#r"5 6"ntr "#

"no "n"(" ("t"*t&$ nt "no "n" &nd& "r"nt" #6r"!&"r&& &"Bnto! #& !# *& !"("(#(t" "no "n" #(" n#t r&&. C to#t" #!" t"#$ o *t&&nn#t r#('$ Bn Bn+"(" ( tr&!t #( ! 7 nt ( &$ n " t" , & o(o%&#$ 6

ot&7 ( !' or&*&! t d" (t #r #!" , & o(o%&# # tr#!+&" d" 7#(o#ror#('$ " t"t&!'$ r&d&!'$ "!ono &!'$ & tor&!'$ "t!.$ # "no "n"(or 6" !#r"

(" t d&#0'$ n 6o#t" tot *& ' #!' # tr#!+&" d" 7#(o#r"# &"!t&7 6ro6r&" &nd&7&d #(&t'+&&$ !'!& #t n!& #r & !# "# ' " ("6"d" d" to#t" !r#6ort' (# !#r#!t"r"(" &nd&7&d #(&t'+&& *& ' " o! 6" n #& d" n ("t

3 ) <. <und , Grund1iige der %h#siologischen Ps#chologie, III (19=A) #ugus?esser, Ps#chologie (191G).



# tr#!to ?. In tot !#0 ( Bn '$ , & o(o%&# " t" 6" ot#r ( d&ntr" *t&&n+n#t r#(" *& *t&&n+"(" or#(" *& o!&#(".



To#t" !"("(#(t" *t&&n+" d&n %r 6 ( *t&&n+"(or or#(" *& o!&#(" " d"6'd" "tod"(" "F6"r& "nt#(" #(" *t&&n+"(or n#t r#(" #& (t d"! t, & o(o%&#. Do ' !# 0" #& #(" (" o (&%' (# #!"# t#: 1< "(" n # d& 6o0&+&" &nt &+& n"# &ntro 6"!t&7' # o &"!t"(or (or5 @< "(" n #

' #!' # tr#!+&" d" ro( ( &nd&7&d #(&t'+&& o "n"*t&$ n&!& '!#r BnBn !#r" #!"# t' # tr#!+&" " #!" d" , & o(o%&". Mor#(#$ o!&o(o%&#$dr"6t ( &$ "!ono &# 6o(&t&!'$ & tor&#$ (&t" - r#t r#$ "t!.$ n o(o " !&ntro 6"!+&#$ !& &# ! no*t&n+' d" o &"!t"(" (or 6r&n & (odo! "nt"(or$ # #!t"(or !r& " *& n" !r& "$ "t!.$ r' # " d 6' r #

#!" tor#. In #( do&("# r nd #6o&$ o &"!t"(" 6" !#r" #!" t" *t&&n+" t d&#0'$ nt ("%#t" d" &nd&7&d #(&t#t"# o "n"# !' *& Bn "(" t' Bnt! t" !"7# d&n !#r#!t"r"(" #!" t"& &nd&7&d #(&t'+&. In , & o(o%&" 6Bntr o o#r"!#r" ' r'$ ' #!" # tr#!+&" d" #!" t" !#r#!t"r" #("&nd&7&d #(&t'+&& *& ' 7or & d" ("%& !# 0#(" ("t"*t& > #"t"rn&t#t& ?5 Bn !"("(#(t" *t&&n+" or#(" *& o!&#(" Bn '$ n . In to#t" *t&&n+"$ ("%"# !# 0#(&t'+&& " Bn(o! "*t" ! &n#(&t#t"# "7o( +nor "(" or#("5 ! !r"d&n+" *& ! 7#(or&... !r"#t" d"o *& n #& 6"ntro . L"%&(" 6" 6(#n d" "t"rn&t#t"$ 6" !#r" #!" t" *t&&n+" or#(" *& o!&#(

6r" 6 n !' #r & #7 nd ! r Bntr" "no "n"(" d&n do "n& ( (or$ nr&d&!#t" 6" d"!'+& d" 7#(o#r"$ #d&!' 6" dor&n+" *& n 6" d#t" Bn '6t &39

@

39 ) <inde%&and, Pr5tudien, G e #u$%. (1911).



L E C Ţ I A WWW I-#

69. METODA ,SI OLOGICĂ ŞI METODA ISTORICĂ. ) D&n%r 6 ( *t&&n+"(or or#(" *& o!&#("$ , & o(o%&# " t" #!""# !#r" d#!' ntot#($ d#r Bntr o o#r"!#r" ' r'$ " #6ro6&" #& (t$ !# "tod'$ d"*t&&n+"(" n#t r#("$ &#r I tor&# " t" #!""# !#r" " d"6'rt"#0' #& (t., & o(o%&# " #6ro6&" #& (t$ &&nd!' o &"!t ( "& !on & t' Bn t

#6t"(or *& t'r&(or ("t"*t& Bn %"n"r"$ 'r' 7r"o 6r"o! 6#r" d" &nt"r" "

#!t #(" #(" &nd&7&d #(&t'+&& o "n"*t&5 6 & o(o%&# " t" *t&&n+("t" !$ d&n or&*&!" t& 6 *& or&*&!" (o!. I tor&#$ d& 6otr&7'$ #6t"(" *& t'r&(" ("t"*t& d&n tr"! t ! !o6 ( #n &t !# ' d"# o

"F6(&!#r" #6t"(or *& t'r&(or #!t #("5 "# " t" *t&&n+# o ( & (" 6#rt&! (#r$ # # n & %r 6 o!&#( 6#rt&! (#r d&ntr n #n &t t&d&ntr n #n &t (o!. C no*t&n+# 6 & o(o%&!' " (+ "*t" ! !#r#t"r&0#r"# o ( & Bn %"n"r"$ 6" !#r" B( !r"d" &d"nt&! !# ("t$ Bn or&*&!*& "6o!# #r # (#5 ! no*t&n+# & tor&!' n " (+ "*t" d"! t d#!' # #

' 6#rt&! (#r&0"0" 6" o ( &"!'r & (o! *& &"!'r"& "6o!". ,"ntr

, & o(o%&"$ &nd&7&d #(&t#t"# " t" o !ond&+& n" d" %"n"r#(&0#r" # "F#6t ( & ("t" !$ 6" ! nd 6"ntr & tor&" &nd&7&d #(&t#t"# " t" o !ondd" d& "r"n+&"r" <.



METODOLOGIA @@3

Intr" , & o(o%&" *& I tor&"$ !# Bntr" do ' "Ftr" "$ " # (' !"("(#(t" *t&&n+!#r" !on t&t " ! %r 6 ( d" !#r" n" o! 6' . =&"!#r" d&ntr" #!" t" *t&&n+"$d#!' &0 t"*t" ' #!' # tr#!+& n" d" !#r#!t"r ( 6#rt&! (#r *& #!t #( #(&nd&7&d #(&t'+&& o "n"*t&$ 66#t" *or Bntr" &n+# "tod"(" 6 & o(o%D#!' Bn ' !#r#!t"r ( 6#rt&! (#r *& #!t #( #( &nd&7&d #(&t'+&& o "n"*t& " t"n"6 t&n+' d" Bn('t r#t$ #t n!& *t&&n+#r' n" ' Bntr" &n+"0" "tod#& tor&!'. S. "F. E t"t&!# " o! 6' d" 6rod !"r"# *& d" Bn+"("%"r"# o6"r"(or d" #rt'. # 6 t"# E t"t&!# ' #!' # tr#!+& n" d" 6#rt&! (#r&t'+&(" &"!'r &#rt& t !r"#tor Bn 6#rt"$ 6r"! *& d" 6#rt&! (#r&t'+&(" &"!'r & Bn+"("%'tor #rt' Bn 6#rt" *& ' !on t&t " t&6 ( #rt& t ( & Bn %"n"r" *& t&6 ( Bn+"("%'tod" #rt' Bn %"n"r"$ #t n!& "# 7# & o *t&&n+' ! "tod" 6 & o(o%&!"5#(t &ntr"(& 7# & o *t&&n+' & tor&!' *& Bn #!" t !#0 7# !' t# ' "F6(&!" &"o6"r' d" #rt' Bn 6#rt"$ d&n !ond&+& n&(" 6"!&#(" ("t"*t& #(" !"( & !#r" 6rod -o *& #(" !"( & !#r" o Bn+"("%"@<. Tot #*# ! *t&&n+# Dr"6t ( & *& #E!ono &"& 6o(&t&!"5 ! *t&&n+# Mor#("& *& # T"o(o%&"&. Intr ! t #d &t"7#(or&(" r&d&!"$ "!ono &!"$ or#(" *& r"(&%&o# "$ !#r" # ! r Bntr"6o!' d#t'$ " 6ot 6 n" 6" "# # nor n!+& n& ("t"*t& &d"nt&!" (# to+&o# "n&& *& " 6ot 6rod !" or& d" ! t" or& !ond&+& n&(" #!" tor n!+&

nt B 6(&n&t"$ Bntr #t t #!" t" *t&&n+" 6ot Bntr" &n+# "tod"( 6 & o(o%&!". In !#0 ( #!" t#$ #d"7'r r&(" #!" tor *t&&n+" 7or & %"n"r#(&

!o# " 6r&n !o 6#r#+& n" *& n"or& ! &#r 6r&n "F6"r&"n+' d&r"!t'. Unr#6ort r&d&! *& n r#6ort "!ono &!$ 6" !#r" (" Bnt (n& (# #n &t" 6o6o#r" Bntr o #n &t' "6o!'$ 7or & !on &d"r#t"$ n !# #6t" 6#rt&! (#r" 6ro6r&& #!"(or 6o6o#r" *& #!"("& "6o!"$ !& !# #6t" !o n" or&*&!'r & 6o6or$ Bn or&*&!" "6o!'$ Bntr ! t !ond&+& n&(" (or d" 6rod !"r" ntB 6(&n&t". D" # " "n"# *& ! nor "(" # ! &d"#( r&(" or#("$ *& !!r"d&n+"(" r"(&%&o# ". M"tod"(" 6 & o(o%&!" 6r" 6 n !' to#t" #!" t"7#(or& " 6ot "F6(&!# Bn od n#t r#( d&n "Ft"r&or&0#r"# n!+& n&(o

("t"*t& #(" o ( & Bn %"n"r". M"tod"(" 6 & o(o%&!" Bn('t r' ! no*t&n+ 6r&n r"7"(#+& n"$ !#r" " t" o &n&+&"r" d" n#t r' & tor&!' &nd&7&d #('$ 6r& " ! n #& ! no*t&n+# !o# ' d&n !o 6#r#+& n"# *& d&n "F6"r& "nt#r"

#& (tor #6t" d" #!"(#*& "(. ,"ntr "tod"(" 6 & o(o%&!" n "F& t'd"! t #6t" %"n"r&!" !#r" " 6ot "F6(&!# 6r&n !# 0" %"n"r&!". M"tod#& tor&!'$ d& 6otr&7'$ #d &t" #6t" &nd&7&d #("$ !#r" " "F6(&!' 6r&n !#&nd&7&d #("3<.



METODA STATISTICĂ. ) In to#t" *t&&n+"(" or#(" *& o!&#(" "tod#!o 6#r#+& n&& " t" d" !"( #& #r" # tor$ or&*& nd" "F6"r&"n+# n 6o#t&nt"r7&n' d&r"!t. ,r&n & (o!&r"# !o 6#r#+& n&& 6 t" Bn('t r!o 6(&!#+& n"# !#r" r"0 (t' d&n ro( ( &nd&7&d #(&t'+&(or (t&6(" *& 6r"d !" #!" t" &nd&7&d #(&t'+& (# ! t"7# t&6 r& !#r#!-t"r& t&!"$ !#r& "#6o& dr"6t o &"!t" 6ro6r&& #(" *t&&n+"&. In(' ntr ( "tod"& d" !o 6#r#+&

n (o! #6#rt" *& o#rt" & 6ort#nt B( o! 6' "tod# . t#t& t&!'$ !#r" t&nd"$ 'Bn(o! &# !' n n #& (+& "# &nd&7&d #(&t'+&(or 6r&n ! t"7# t&!#r#!t"r& t&!"$ d#r ' *& r"6r"0&nt" #!" t" t&6 r& 6r&ntr n r#6ort n "r&!#r" ' 6o#t' & #6o& & t" #t&0#t ! #(t"(" 6" #0# *t&&n+"& #t" #t&!".(o!$ . "F.$ ' " o! 6" d" &"!#r" &nd&7&d !#r" tr'&"*t" *& !#r" &# 6#rt" (#!t&7&t#t"# 6o(&t&!'$ 6!&#('$ "!ono &!' # n & 6o6or$ %r#+&" "tod

t#t& t&!"$ *t&&n+# " o! 6' d" r#6ort ( n "r&! #( !r"*t"r&& 6o6 (#+& n!o" &!&"nt ( & 6ort ( & *& "F6ort ( &5 d" t# &(&r"# !& r"& "

ort#(&t'+&&$ # o%'+&"&$ # d"n &t'+&& 6o6 (#+& n&& 6" &(o "tr ( Bntr" &n+#r"# d&n !" Bn !" #& ! !!" # "tod"& t#t& t&!" # '! t

(t" d&n *t&&n+"(" !#r& " 6'r"# o#rt" d"6'rt#t"$ (# Bn!"6 t$ d" *t&&n+n#t r#("$ ! 6r" "F" 6( $ o!&o(o%&# *& *t&&n+"(" 6o(&t&!" Bn %"n"r"$#6ro6&" Bn r ' d" #!" t" *t&&n+" n#t r#(" *& ' #do6t" "tod"(" (or4<.

70. METODA ISTORICĂ. ) t n (o! 7# r' n" Bn ' d" t ( d" Bnt&n $Bn ! 6r&n ( *t&&n+"(or or#(" *& o!&#("$ 6"ntr "tod"(" 6ro6r& 0& tor&!"$ ! to#t' #6ro6&"r"# !ont&n ' !#r" " o6"r"#0' Bntr" "tod"("*t&&n+"(or or#(" *& o!&#(" *& "tod"(" *t&&n+"(or n#t r#(". I tor&# #!t&

("t"*t& # o "n&r&&$ Bn d&7"r "(" #(" #n& " t#+& n& 6#rt&! (#r" *&7# & totd"# n# &n" d" *t& t$ &&nd!' totd"# n# Bn "F& t"n+# &nd&7&do "n"*t&$ #d&!' Bn !o6 r&(" *& Bn # 6&r#+& n&(" &nd&7&0&(or *& 6or' n" n ond !#r" n " 7# 6 t"# "F6(&!# 6r&n ("%&(" !#r" !ond&+&on"#0'

("t ( o "n" ! Bn %"n"r"5 totd"# n# 7# r' n" Bn &nd&7&d #(&t#t"o "n"# !' n ond !" n " 7# 6 t"# r"6r"0"nt# 6r&n # tr#!+& n& t&6&!" *&d" !#r" n n" 7o 6 t"# #6ro6&# d"! t 6r&n Bn+"("%"r"# & tor&!' # 7&"+&o "n&r&&. I tor&# n d' ("%&(" "t"rn" #(" d" 7o(t'r&& o!&"t'+&(or o "n"*t&"# n&!& n !# t' #!" t" ("%& "t"rn"$ &&nd!' Bn #!" t" ("%& "t"rn" n " t" (o 6"ntr &nt"r" "(" o "n"*t&$ !#r" " ! & ' d 6' "6o!' *& d 6' +#r'5 & tor&#

" 'r%&n"*t" ' n" 6 n' !" nt" Bn 6r"0"nt$ #*# ! nt" $ *& (# !"7&&tor$ d"! nd d 6' tr"! t$ 6 t" ' n" #*t"6t' . I tor&# n " t" d#r o

"!#n&!'2 # &nd&7&d #(&t'+&(or o "n"*t&$ !#r" ' n" 6r"0&!' r'0 o#&"(" *&tr#n or 'r&(" 6o(&t&!"$ Bnto! #& ! n" 6r"0&!"



A trono &# "!(&6 "(" d" o#r" *& d r#t# 0&("(or *& # no6+&(or5 & tor&! no*t&n+" #6roF& #t&7"$ d#r #!" t" ! no*t&n+" &&nd to! #& #!"("# !#r" #& ("%#t" d" &nt"r" "(" #!t #(&t'+&& no# tr" *& d" 7r" "(n&!&# no# tr'$

nt no ' !"(" #& ! 6".M"tod# & tor&!' ! 6r&nd" do ' o6"r#+& n& #& & 6ort#nt": o o6"r#+& n

d" #n#(&0'$ 6r&n !#r" " 7"r& &!' #t"r&#( ( Bn od !r&t&! *& " 6' tr"##!""# !" " t" # t"nt&! *& d&n &07or d" n' !r"d&n+'5 *& o o6"r#+& n" d

&nt"0'$ 6r&n !#r" " &nt"r6r"t"#0' #t"r&#( ( *& " Bn!"#r!' o "F6(&!#r" ##6t"(or 6"tr"! t". A ndo ' #!" t" o6"r#+& n& n 6ot & d " (# n n

r*&t$ d"! t d" !'tr" !"r!"t'tor ( !#r" #r" ! no*t&n+" o(&d" d&n to#t"*t&&n+"(" 6"!&#(" *& ! d"o " &r" d&n *t&&n+# , & o(o%&"&. ,"ntr t#&nt"r6r"t#r"# n & #6t & tor&! nt 6 " (# !ontr& +&" to#t" *t&&n+"( 6#("onto(o%&"$ *t&&n+# ( !r r&(or o#rt" *& 6 n' (# o!&o(o%&"$ *t&&n+Bn! "t' ' "F6(&!" 6r"0"nt ( *& tr"! t ( o "n&r&& *& ' #!' # t "( &n t&Bn '*& & tor&#8<.



PARTEA IlI-a

," ( n%' #!"# t' 7#r&"t#t" d" ! no*t&n+"$ & tor&! ( tr" " ' #& #& ' *&or+# d" # " "n+&n" Bntr o #t&t d&n" d" &n!"r' o &"!t&7&t#t" Bn d& ! 6ro (" "(or$ !#r" #d" "or& 6 n Bn o! &nt"r" "$ d" !#r" " t" ("%#t' *&

6"r o#n# #. D" #!""# #d"7'r#+&& & tor&!& nt o#rt" r#r&. S nt 6o6o#r!#r" n # n% ' #& ' n #d"7'r#t & tor&! Bn tot ! r ( 7&"+&& (or 6" 6'

4 41TEORIA CUNOŞTINŢEIL E C Ţ I A WWW II-#

71. TEORIA CUNOŞTINŢEI. ,ROPLEMELE EI. ) In #!"# t' 6#rt" # Lo%&!"& ! 6r&nd" t"or&&(" &(o o &!" 6ro7o!#t" d" 6ro (" "(7#(# &(&t'+&& ! no*t&n+"& o "n"*t&. D&n !" or&%&n" &07or' ! ! no*t&o 7#(o#r" n&7"r #(' *& n"!" #r' C#r" " t" !r&t"r& ($ d 6' !#r" 6 t"# &r #$ !' o ! no*t&n+'$ o!ot&t' !"rt'$ !or" 6 nd" n"& r"#(&t'+& *& nr"#(&t'+&$ d" !" #n " n#t r' In r*&t$ Bn !" r#6ort t' !"rt&t d&n"#

4 & #. . Henopo%, La theorie de l:histoire ( eu ieme edi ion Les %rinci%es )onda-mentau6 de l:histoire. +aris, 19=8) #. Bas ian, Ethnische Elementargedanken in der

Lehre &on 4enschen (189@) Idem, Der !dlkergedanke im Au) an einer <issenscha)t &om 4enschen (1881) Idem, Kontro&ersen in der Elhnologie (189@) :r. 5a *e%,

Anthro%ogeogra%hie (1912) <. <und , Logik, II, 2 e #& .2) E. ?eumann, "#stem der Aesthetik (191G). 3)<. <und , !olker%s#chologie, Eine 3ntersuchung der Entwicklungsgeset1e &on

"%rache, 4#thus und "itte (2 #u$%. 191@).;. ?arc6, "tatisti9ue ('n De la methode dans les "ciences. :. #%ean, +aris) 7.

<es ergaard, Die Grundlage der =heorie der "tatistik (Qena, 189=) ;e is, A handlungen 1ur =heorie der *ewolkerungs- u. 4oralslalistik (Qena, 19=A).

41 Ernes Bern6eim, Lehr uch der historischen 4ethode und der Geschichts- %hiloso%hie (;eip*ig, 19=8) E. urM6eim, "ociologie et "ciences sociales De la

4ethode dans les "ciences, :. #%ean, +aris) 3. ?onod, istoire De la 4ethode dansles "ciences. :. #%ean, +aris).



PARTEA IlI-a

! no*t&n+"& *t&&n+& &!" ! !"("(#(t" !r"d&n+" #(" ("t ( & o "n" !



@@ C. R. MOTRU: LECŢII DE LOGICĂ

A " "n& Bntr" 'r& # 6ro7o!#t 6 +&n" t"or&& Bn ( "# &(o o &(or #nt&! & $ Bn &(o o &# od"rn'$ "(" # 6ro7o!#t o#rt" (t" *& Bn!' #

6ro7o!#t t"or&& ! n !#r#!t"r #t t d" %"n"r#($ Bn! t$ #!" t"# # d"6'*&t!#dr ( Lo%&!"& *& # # n ' !on t&t " o r# r' 6"!&#(' &(o o &!'$d"n &r"# d" >T"or&# C no*t&n+"&?5 6"ntr n&& ! &#r "(" # !on! Bn '*& 7"! "# M"t# &0&!'. Con t#t#r"# n"& #t#r& # !"nd"n+" n tr"Bn ' ' n" r6r&nd'. In &(o o &# #nt&!'$ 6ro (" "(" Bn ("%'t r' !7#(# &(&t#t"# ! no*t&n+"(or #7"# 6 +&n" ot&7" !# ' &" 6 " Bn d&d"o#r"!" #!t ( d" ! no#*t"r" "r# !on &d"r#t d" #& to+& &(o o && t& 6!# o o%(&nd&r" d&r"!t' # r"#(&t'+&& 2#d"!- 7#t&o r"& "t &nt"(("!tC no*t&n+"(" #7"# !"rt&t d&n"# 6" !#r" o #7"# Bn '*& r"#(&t#t"# d 6' !#r"(" "r# !o6&#t". S" 6 t"# t'%'d &$ n"%r"*&t$ "F#!t&t#t"# o%(&nd&r&&$ #!

&(o o && !"6t&!&$ o &*t&&$ # *& '! t-o ! &n & t"n+'$ d#r #!"#B 6&"d"!#t !# "F6(&!#r"# #!t ( & d" ! no#*t"r" ' r' n' #!"&#*&. In (o! (o%(&nd&r&&$ 6r&n & + r& *& 6r&n ! 7 nt$ !#r" #d !" ! &n" (t" r"#(&t'+&&$ # o t 6 ' Bn+"("%"r"# 6r&n r#+& n"$ *& !"rt&t d&n"# ! no

o t n #&d"! t r" t# &(&t'. ,ro (" "("$ 6" !#r" (" ! 6r&nd"Beoria4unoştinţei $ # ! *t&%#t Bn & 6ort#n+' *& # & 6 &(o o &"& oBn!"6 nd d"(# R"n" D" !#rt" 2189 )1 8 <. S!r&"r&(" #!" t &#$ *& Bn

6"!&#( -iscours de la met)ode, potir bien conduire la raison et c)erc)er laoerite dans *es Sciences 21 3J< # d#t (# ( &n' 6r& "(" (or or ('r&$ !#r"

# !ont&n #t #!!"nt nd - " d 6' #!""#$ 6"ntr !# #6o&$ Bn r # !"(" r"&o6"r" # ( & I . K#nt$ =riti< der reinen Fernunft 21J 1< ' " & 6 n'$ !# 6ro (" " !"ntr#("$ Bntr"%"& &(o o && " ro6"n".

In !" !on t' no t#t"# 6 n!t ( & d" 7"d"r" !#rt" &#n Bn "F6(&!#r"##!t ( & d" ! no#*t"r" D" !#rt" Bnt" "&#0' !"rt&t d&n"# ! no*t&n+"& 6"7&d"n+# !" &07or'*t" d&n Bn *& #!t ( ! no#*t"r&&. ,"ntr D" !#rt" $ !"" t" n #& ! no*t&n+#$ #(" !'r"& "(" "nt" !(#r" *& d& t&n!t"$ nt ("%#Bntr" "(" 6r&n "7&d"n+# (' ntr&!' # % nd&r&&$ &#r n 6r&n 6r& &n ( 6" # tor&t#t"# tr#d&+&"&. =&(o o &# #nt&!'$ *& Bntr o #& #r" ' r'

&(o o &# !o(# t&!'$ # o #r" Bn!r"d"r" Bn "tod# &(o%& t&!'$ #Ar& tot"($ "tod' !#r" nd"#0' d" on tr#+&# 6" d" &n&+&&(" d#t" t#( !r r&(or$ d&n !#r" #6o& nt d"d " 6ro6r&"t'+&(" #!" tor#$ 6" ! nD" !#rt" $ r 'r&nd "7&d"n+# ! %"t'r&&$ " t" #d ' Bn(o! &# !' d" &n&d" t#n+' ! r#6ort r&(" #t" #t&!" d&ntr" 6ro6r&"t'+&(" ( !r r&(or *# t "( ' d" ! &d' n dr 6r" "tod"("$ "F6"r& "nt#(".

D#r D" !#rt" d' n #& o Bndr #r" 6r" T"or&# C no*t&n+"&. A!"(#!#r" &F"#0' (o! ( #!" t"&# Bn &(o o &# od"rn'$ *& Bn!' n (o



@@9 C. R. MOTRU: LECŢII DE LOGICĂ

6r"6ond"r"nt " t" I . K#nt. D"(# K#nt nt B 6r t#t" d" &(o o &&t& 6 ( &$ d#!' n t"or&&(" ! &#r$ 6r&n !#r" nt o( +&on#t" 6ro (" "(" 6d" T"or&# C no*t&n+"&$ Bn or&!" !#0 nt B 6r t#+& t"r "n&& Bn#!" t" 6ro (" " nt d" &n&t". T"or&# C no*t&n+"& " t" 6" d"#ntr"% (

&(o o &"$ n# *& n"d" 6'r+&t' d" !r&t&!& ( #nt&#n.



13

In 6#%&n&(" !#r" r "#0' 7o !"r!"t# 6ro (" "(" 6 " d" T"or&# C no*t&n+"&$ n #& Bntr ! t ntd" &nt"r" 6"ntr !o 6("t#r"# "todo(o%&"&(o%&!"5 !'!& T"or&# C no*t&n+"&$ Bn # #r' d" 6ro (" "(" !#r" &nt"r" "#0' Lo%&!#$ ! 6r&nd" 6ro (" " d" ord&n "t# &0&!$ d&n !#r"TEORIA CUNOŞTINŢEI \ 193

!# 0' n&& &(o o & !ont& 6or#n& o *& d"n " ! M"t# &0&!# t& 67&&to#r".

72. METODA IN RA,ORT CU IN ENŢIA. A,RIORISMULKANTIAN. ) ,r& # 6ro (" ' d" &nt"r" 6"ntr "todo(o%&# (o%&!' *&!#r" #*t"#6t' o o( +&" d"(# T"or&# C no*t&n+"& " t" #!""# r" "r&to#r" (#r#6ort ( d&ntr" "tod' *& &n7"n+&# #d"7'r ( &. E t" "tod#$ 6r&n "# Bn '*

n & (o! d" &n7"n+&"$ # " t" n #& n & (o! d" 6ro #+&" # #d"7'r (A!"# t' 6ro (" ' " ("#%' d" o ( n%' tr#d&+&" *& #$#7 t Bn d"! r (

t& 6 ( & 7#r&#t" o( +&&. ,(#to n " Bndo&# !' 6r&n & (o!&r"# "td&#("!t&!" " 6o#t" # n%" (# d" !o6"r&r"# d" #d"7'r r& no&. A!""#*&!r"d&n+' o #7"# *& Ar& +ot"($ !'!& #(t &ntr"(& n #r & &d"nt& &!#t "( d"(o%&!" ! r"#(&t#t"#. M"t# &0&!&"n&& d&n #nt&! &t#t" *& d&n E7 ( M!r"0 t d" # " "n& Bn 6 t"r"# d" &n7"n+&" # "tod"&$ &&nd!' 6r&n "tod' Bn+"("%" Bn '*& r#+& n"#. Cr"d&n+# #!"# t# # !ont&n #t & (# n&&

&(o o && od"rn&$ Bn!"6 nd ! Bn *& D" !#rt" !#r" #*t"6t# ! to!on7&n%"r"#$ d"(# r' 6 nd&r"# no&& #(" "tod" d" !"r!"t#r"$ n 6ro%r"

& +&tor Bn "r ( *t&&n+"(or A('t r"# d" "( tr" &" 6 *& #6o& =r. P#!o

L"& n&0$ tot #*# d" o6t& &*t& Bn #!""# !" 6r&7"*t" r"0 (t#t"(" !" " 6oo +&n" d" 6" r # 6"r "!+&on'r&(or "todo(o%&!". ,r&n r #r"$ 6"ntr 6'r"r"#$ !' "tod# (o%&!' " t" 6r&n &n" Bn '*& &n7"nt&7'$ n (&6 " 6#rt&0#n& Bn r nd ( &(o o &(or$ *& Bn!' Bn r nd ( &(o o &(or !"(o

"# '. C#r" " t" Bn ' #d"7'r#t# o( +&" # 6ro (" "&R' 6 n ( n " 6o#t" d#$ d"! t d 6' !" n" 6r"!&0' &n" t"r "n&&

6ro (" "&$ #!""# !" 6 t" #!" # t'0& ! * r&n+' Bn r # &(o o &!!r&t&!& t" # ( & I . K#nt.C' o "tod' 6"r "!+&on#t' # t' (# d" !o6"r&r"# #d"7'r ( &$ 6r&n #6t ( !'

"# & (o!"*t" Bn('t r#r"# 7"! &(or "ror&$ #!" t# " t" n ( !r ! no ! t d"to#t' ( "#$ #& #(" d" ! nd "tod# !on & t' n n #& Bn r"% (& d"#r% "nt#r"$ !& *& Bn t" n&!' &n tr "nt#('$ #*# ! " t". !#0 ( Bnt& 6 r&(" od"rn"$ O &nt" "d&o!r' d" # t'0&$ ! # tor ( &n tr "nt"(or d" ' r'to#r"$ 6o#t" # n%" (# ! no*t&n+" #& 6r"!& " d" 6r" !or6 r&("n#t r&&$ d"! t # # n !"& #& &( *tr& &(o o & d&n #nt&! &t#t". Bn('t r#r"# "ror&(or " t" 7or # #!&. Bn('t r#r"# "ror&(or 7"! & * r"#0' &n"Bn+"(" &n7"n+&# #d"7'r r&(orno&$ d#r n o *& 6rod !". In7"n+&# tr" &"#& ' "6#r#t &07or ( ' d" 7&#+'5 &07or !#r" tr" &" !"r!"t#t d"o " &t. C

#!"# t# 7"n& (# 6ro (" # or&%&n&& ! no*t&n+"(or$ d" !#r" " o! 6' &(o!r&t&!& t' d" # t'0& *& !#r" # o t n"%(& #t' d" &(o o & d&n tr"! t"tod# Bn "# Bn '*&$ n &07or d" no& ! no*t&n+" D#!' d#$ #t n!& &nt

o "n"# !' #r #7"# Bn "# d#r ( '-*& !r""0" d&n !on t&t +&# # 6ro6r&"& t" " d" ! no*t&n+"$ ! # tor ( !'ror# ' " or&"nt"0" Bn ( " #*# !

6'&#n "n ( B*& +" " d&n t#n+# # 6ro6r&" 6 n0# !#r" B& "r7"*



13

6ro! r#r"# #(& "nt#+&"&. C"(" #& &% r" *& #& (# Bnd" n' ! no*t&n+# %' & #t n!& Bn M"t# &0&!'$ &&nd!' #!"# t' *t&&n+' &(o o &!' nn"7o&" d" n& &! #(t# Bn # #r' d" r#+&on# "nt. O # " "n"# 6'r"r" " t" Bn '%r" d" +&n t. Ad"7'r#t' ' &" #t n!& 6'r"r"# !ontr#r&" M"tod# 6r&n "#Bn '*& n " t" &n7"nt&7' d" #d"7'r$$ !& "# " t" n #& n & (o! d" 6ro #+ 6"ntr #d"7'r ( &n7"nt#t. S6"! (#+&&(" 7"! "& M"t# &0&!" nt & 6d"*"rt'!& n& *& ! "(" d& 6r" n' " n'r " ! d" &n&+&&(" d" 6r" t#n+

Bn *&r&(" ("t ( & d& 6 & o(o%&# r#+&on#(& t'$ 6r"! #r% "nt'r&(" t"o(o%&!" Bn !o6 d" # do7"d& "F& t"n+# 6r#n#t r#( ( &C #(t" ! 7&nt"$ d" o 6#rt" " t" 6'r"r"# !' "tod# " t" Bn &n" n &07or

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!on+&n t o#rt" 7#r&#t. Con+&n t ( nor# " 6o#t" 7"r& &!# *or$ &#r #( #(



! %r" . Un"(" # n !on+&n t !#r" " 6o#t" Bn(o! & ! & o( r& # 6r#!'ror# #r% "nt#r"# " #6(&!' 'r' d& &! (t#t"$ &#r #(t"(" # n -!on+&n t 6(&n d" d#t" !on!r"t"$ !#r" " t" r" "( (# or&!" Bn(o! &r". A t "(# &r #+& n&

'! t" # 6r# &%6r&(or %"o "tr&!" & 6("$ # n !on+&n t$ !#r" 6"r &7"r& &!#r"# Bntr n od ! (t #& (" n&!&o d"! t # &r #+&&(" '!# 6r# &&n+"(or o "n"*t&. =&% r&(" %"o "tr&!" & 6(" " 6ot Bn '+&*# Bn tr !t r# (or !o 6("t'$ 6" ! nd &&n+"(" o "n"*t& n # n% d"! t I# oBn '+&*#r" #6roF& #t&7'$ n&!&od#t' !o 6("t'. Con+&n t ( nor # &r #+& 6 t" #7"# Bn &nt" Bn or&!" o "nt *& Bntr"6r&nd" # 6r# ( &"F6"r& "nt'r& &nt#("$ 'r' ' r"! r%" (# &n tr "nt" d" ' r'to#r"$ 6"! nd !on+&n t ( #(tor # &r #+&& n"!" &t' o "F6"r& "nt#r" 6" t"r"n$ #d&!' 6"o &"!t ( Bn *& #( !on+&n t ( &$ Bn o+&nd-o d" ' r'tor& 6"!&#(". M"! #(t" ! 7&nt"$ n Bnt 6&n' #!"("#*& !ond&+&& Bn #6(&!#r"# "&. Un"on#t r# !on+&n t ( & d&n # &r #+&" B& o "r' !ond&+&& #7or# &("$!ond&+&& #& 6 +&n #7or# &(". R"0 (t#t"(" "& nt Bn !on "!&n+' *& %r#d d& "r&t. In n"(" !#0 r& "tod# d" 6ro #+&" d !" (# #d"7'r r& !"rt"$#(t"or& n #& (# #d"7'r r& 6ro # &(". M"tod#$ d" #(t &ntr"(&$ n " t" n#!& #*# 6r"! # 7'0 t Bn M"todo(o%&"$ n !o 6("F d" "tod"$ !#r" "#6(&!' d 6' o &"!t ( d" !"r!"t#t. S nt o &"!t" d" 6r" !#r" n 7o 6 t"#n&!&od#t' #7"# #d"7'r r& !"rt"$ or&! t # B o%'+& "tod"(" no# tr" d"!"r!"t#r" ! & (o#!" d" 6ro #+&" t"or"t&!" *& &n tr "nt#("$ *& nt$ B

! & $ o &"!t" d" 6r" !#r" d" 6" #! 6 t" 6r"t&nd" !' #7" #d"7'r r&!"rt". C"rt&t d&n"# #d"7'r r&(or " t" #*# d#r %r#d#t'$ d 6' n#t r#o &"!t"(or (# !#r" " r" "r' #d"7'r r&(".

D&n #!" t 6 n!t d" 7"d"r" #d"7'r r&(" #t" #t&!" nt #& !"rt"d"! t #d"7'r r&(" d&n *t&&n+"(" n#t r#("$ &#r #!" t"# #& !"rt" d"! t #!"("#d&n *t&&n+"(" or#(" *& o!&#(". C"rt&t d&n"# #d"7'r r&(or *t&&n+& &%r#d#t' d 6' 6o & &(&t'+&(" 6" !#r" (" #r" o ( d" *t&&n+' (# 6ro #r"# (or.

. A!"# t# " t" !"rt&t d&n"# *t&&n+& &!'.M#& " t" Bn ' *& o #(t#$ # *& #(t" !"rt&t d&n&$ Bn # #r' d" !"# *t&

+& &!'



A!"# t# " t" o 6ro (" ' d& "r&t' *& 6" !#r" o 7o d& ! t# #& t r0&=&&nd!' 6ro (" # " 6 n" *& " t" Bndr"6t'+&t'. Şt&&n+#$ 6" #0# !r&t"r& 6" !#r"-1 o "r' "todo(o%&# "&$ #("%" d&n # &r #+&&(" &n+&& o#d"7'r r&(" *t&&n+& &!". R" t ( # &r #+&&(or !#r" r' n$ d&n !" "!on t&t &t D&n & 6(" # &r #+&& "ron#t" d" t&n#t" &t'r&& A!"# 6 t" *t& 'r' o 6r"#(# &(' "F# &n#r". O "n&r"#$ Bnor&!" !#0$ n # tr'& 6 n' #! n #& 6" #0# !"rt&t d&n"& *t&&n+& &!". A('t r& d" #!"# t#

#& ! no ! t *& #(t" !"rt&t d&n&. D&ntr" #!" t"# " t" d" t ( ' n & $ 6r& ( r nd$ !"rt&t d&n"# r"(&%&o# ' *& !"rt&t d&n"# n & "n #o "n"*t&.

T"or&# C no*t&n+"& #r" ' "F# &n"0" *& #!" t" #(t" !"rt&t d&n&.) 0omp. 0. 5"du%escu ?o ru,!oca'ia, )actor hot5r2tor n cultura %o%oarelor.

(Edi ia de$ini i ", Edi ura 0asei Zcoa%e%or, Bucureş i, 19A@)5 A%riorism, &oca'ie 0i 0tiin'5 (« 5e is a de :i%oso$ie 4, 19G1) Psihologia de ad2ncime 0i !oca'ia (« 5e is a:unda ii%or 5ega%e 4, 19G1).



L E C Ţ I A WWW III-#

77. CRITERIUL ADE ĂRULUI ŞI METODELE ŞTIINŢI=ICE. ) Z D#!' "tod"(" (o%&!" # d" !o6$ Bn 6r& ( r nd$ ' !ontro("0" *& '7"r& &!" # &r #+&&(" 6" !#r" (" #!" &nt"# o "n"# !' *& n #& Bn #( dor nd ' # t" (# &n7"n+&# ! no*t&n+"(or *t&&n+& &!"$ #!"# t# 6r" 6 n #0# "tod"(or "F& t' n !r&t"r& d 6' !#r" " 6o#t" #!" !ontro( ( *&7"r& &!#r"#. A!" t !r&t"r& no& n"-# (+ &t '-( &nd&!' !# &&& 6(&!#t Bn & t" #t&0#r"# *t&&n+& &!'$ 6" !#r" &"!#r" !"r!"t'tor d" *t&%' "*t" Bn#&nt"# #$ !on t&t &t' %#t# d&n n!# tr"! t ( &. S& t" #t&0*t&&n+& &!'$ 7"r& &!#t' d" #+ +& *& #+ +& !"r!"t'tor& Bn tr"! t$ "r7"!r&t"r& 6"ntr !"r!"t'tor&& d&n 7&&tor. A!""# !" r"7&n" (# ! no ! t# r"% (' #Bn7'+' nt ( & *!o(#r: ( !r r&(" no&$ n"! no ! t"$ " "F6(&!' 6" #0# !"(or ! no ! t" d" #& Bn#&nt". Cr&t"r& ( t' Bn Bn '*& !ont&n &t#t"# n*t&&n+& &!".



TEORIA CUNOŞTINŢEI 2G1

T"or&# ! no*t&n+"& n " (+ "*t" ! #!"# t' &nd&!#r". E# !"r" o#6ro nd#r" # ro t ( & 6" !#r"-1 # "tod"(" *& 6r&n r #r" *& ro t ( 6"!#r"-1 #r" Lo%&!#$ *t&&n+# Bn '*& # "tod"(or. S& t" #t&0#r"# *t&&n+&

n 6rod & tor&!$ o & 6(' #! (#r" d" !#6&t#( *& !# #t#r" n 6o#t" &!on &d"r#t' !# o #0' # o( t &% r'. C" " t" & tor&!$ " t" r"(#t&7. T"or&! no*t&n+"& 6r"t&nd" n !r&t"r& !#r" '-*& d"+&n' 7#(# &(&t#t"# d"(# d#t"

' t"# d"# 6r# or&!'r & r"(#t&7& . In #!"# t' 6r"t"n+&" "# n #!" d"! t 'r "0" tr#d&+&# #r&(or &(o o &$ Bn!"6 nd ! ,(#to *& Ar& tot"(. A!"*t&

d&n r '$ #& #(" $ ! #r & (+ &t$ 6"ntr nd#r"# Lo%&!"&$

& t" #t&0#r"# *t&&n+& &!' # t& 6 ( & (or$ ! nd Bn t& 6 ( (or #& t" #t&0#r" "r# !# *& &n"F& -t"nt' A t'0&$ o & t" #t&0#r" *t&&"F& t'5 d#r !" 6o#t" "# ' Bn " n"0"$ #+' d" #!""# !#r" #r" ' &" 6" t" n

"!o($ # do ' =&"!#r" "!o( #d !" d 6' "( o !r"*t"r" *& ! &#r ood& &!#r" Bn & t" #t&0#r"# *t&&n+& &!' # tr"! t ( &$ #*# !' nd#

#!"# t' & t" #t&0#r" n 6o#t" & d"! t d" o 7#(# &(&t#t" 7r" "(n&!'. T"or&#! no*t&n+"& " t" d"!& t& &!#t' ' 6 n' 6ro (" # 7#(# &(&t'+&& !r&t"rd 6' !#r" "tod"(" 6ro!"d"#0' (# 7"r& &!#r"# ! no*t&n+"(or.

O 6r& ' or (#r" # #!" t & !r&t"r& o # (' (# &(o o && d&n E7M"d& . C no*t&n+# #d"7'r#t' d 6' #!"*t&#$ tr" &" ' &" #d"! #t' ( !r ( &r"#(. Ad&!'$ #d"7'r ( " t" o%(&nd&r"# &d"(' # r"#(&t'+&&. Ro t ( "tod"& " t" #(t ($ d"! t ' #d !' do7#d# #d"!7'r&& ! no*t&n+"& ! r"#( (. A!"# t'

or (#r"$ !#r" 6#r" d&!t#t' d" Bn *& n ( & +$ " t" 'r' 7#(o#r" 6r#!t&!'$d&n !# 0' !' r"#(&t#t"# 6" !#r" "# o 6o t ("#0'$ !# t"r "n d" !o 6#r#+&"$n " t" d"! t tot o ! no*t&n+'$ d" tr#d&+&" #& &n" #!r"d&t#t' # n $ d#r

ond o ! no*t&n+' d& ! t# &(' !# or&*&!#r" #(t#. C"r&n+# d" # n" #d"!7#r"#(&t'+&& #r & d"!& n d"0&d"r#t$ &#r n n !r&t"r& . D" #(t &n

or (#r"# d#t' d" &(o o &# E7 ( & M"d& $ d#!' #r 6 t"# & r"#(&0#t'$d" &&n+# "tod"(" d" !"r!"t#r" *t&&n+& &!'. C" " t" d#t #d"!7#t ! r"#(&t#t"n #r" n"7o&" ' #& &" !ontro(#t *& 7"r& &!#t. C"( (t$ #r" n"7o&" ' "F6 Bn od & t" #t&!5 #!""# !" 6 t" o +&n" ! * r&n+'$ o "r7 nd d#6ro#6" r"% ("(" 7or &r&&.

Cr&t"r& ( tr" &" !' t#t$ 6r&n r #r"$ Bn #(t' d&r"!+&". A!""# !" n #Bnt r0&#t ' *& #!' &(o o && od"rn&. No& n 7o Bn*&r# #!& to#t"

or ('r& 6ro6 " d" &(o o && od"rn&5 7o r"6rod !" n #& 6" !"# d#t'd" I . K#nt$ !#r" " t" !"# #& r' 6 nd&t' *& Bn t& 6 ( no tr $ !"# #&

"tod&! +&n t'$ (+ &nd -n" #-& #d'o%# !o 6("t'r&(" 6" !#r" ("o!ot& !"r t" d" 6ro%r" ( *t&&n+"& !ont" 6or#n".



@4@ C. R. MOTRI : LECŢII DE LOGICĂ

78. SOLUŢIA DATĂ DE =ILOSO=IA KANTIANĂ. ) K#nt nr"7o( +&on"#0' &(o o &# t& 6 ( & ' $ 6r&n 6 n"r"# nor 6ro (" " no&r"% (' "( !ont&n ' 6ro (" "(" 6" !#r" (" %' "*t" 6 " Bn#&nt"# #5r"7o( +&on"#0' Bn ' 6r&n o( +&&(" 6" !#r" (" #d !". L' 6ro (" # !"#& 6ort#nt' # t# &(&r&& !r&t"r& ( &$ d 6' !#r" &nt"# o "n"# !' 6o#td"o " & #d"7'r r&(" d" 7#(o#r" n&7"r #(' *& n"!" #r' d" !"("(#(t" # &r #+&

&"!t&7"$ d#t"(" 6" #0# !'ror# "( r 'r"*t" o( +&#$ nt #!"("#*& !#!"("# 6" #0# !'ror# (+& &(o o &$ Bn#&nt"# #$ *&-# r 'r&t o( +&(or. ,r&n!&6#("(" " r" "r' (# n#t r# "n & &(&t'+&&. D 6' K#nt$ !# *& d

o n Lo! "$ D#7&d "$ L"& n&0$ "t!.$ !# *& d 6' ,(#to ! &#r$ o ( 6r& "*t" 6r&n & + r&(" #(" o (t&6(&!&t#t" d" & 6r" &&$ !#(&t#t&7d&n !#r" B*& +" " & #%&n& !#r& n # d"! to !on & t"nt' &"!t&7'. ,"ntr # #d !" #!"# t' (t&6(&!&t#t" d"

W[\ & 6r" && Bntr o ord&n" 6r& &to#r" d" r#6ort r& n&7"r #(" *& n"!" #r"$d" n"#6'r#t' tr" &n+' &nt"r7"n+&# n!+& n&(or &nt#(": d" &nt"(&%"n+'$r#+& n"$ d" Lo%o $ d 6' 6'r"r"# &(o o &(or r#+&on#(&*t&5 d" # o!&"r"#

& 6(# o &*n &n+'$ d 6' 6'r"r"# &(o o &(or " 6&r&*t& *& !"6t&!&

! no*t&n+"(" o "n"*t& nt n"(" !#r" " & 6 n 6r&n. !"rt&t d&n"# (or$ !nt !"(" #t" #t&!"$ &#r #(t"(" n 5 #!"# t# " t" &#r'*& o d#t' 6r& &t' d" #&to+& &(o o &&. C &#r *& !"& !"6t&!&$ !# D#7&d "$ tr" &# ' !or#6ort r&(" d&ntr" n "r" *& d&ntr" &% r&(" %"o "tr&!"$ n nt 6" #!"( 6(#n d" !"rt&t d&n" ! # &r #+&&(" d" 6r" !"("(#(t" 6ro6r&"t'+& #(" ( !r r&D#t" !o n" (# #& to+& &(o o && "r# $ Bn r*&t$ !"(" 6r&7&to#r" (# !#r"-1 #r" n!+& n"# # tr#!+&"& Bn or #r"# ! no*t&n+"(or *t&&n+&Bn!"6 nd ! ,(#to$ & o( r&(" *& ! " "(" r"0 (t#t" d&n n!+& n"# tr#!+&"&$ nt r"! no ! t" !# &n7#r&#nt" *& d"!& !# "(" "nt" o &"!t&7"

& (o! ( tor"nt ( & d" r"6r"0"nt'r& &"!t&7" *& !# #t#r"$ d"n &r"# " "n+" *& d" !#t"%or&&$ "(" !on t&t " ! #rt&! (#+&# r#+&on# "nt ( & *t&Bn od #6ro#6" "F!( &7. C"rt&t d&n"# o &"!t&7&t'+&& *t&&n+& &!" " 6"ntr to+& &(o o && !ont" 6or#n& ( & K#nt$ ("%#t' d" n!+& n"# # trD"o " &r"# d&ntr" "& t# n #& Bn Bn+"("%"r"# r#6ort ( & d&ntr" 6rod# tr#!+&"& *& r"6r"0"nt'r&(" &"!t&7" #(" "F6"r&"n+"&5 6" ! nd r#+&on#(&*t&&$ (" 7o&# ! tot ( "6#r#t"$ #(+&&$ " 6&r&*t&&$ (" "n+ 6r&n or&%&n" *& (" "6#r# n #& Bn ro( ( !" #7"# d" Bnd"6(&n&t.

"6#r#r"## tr#!+&"& d" r"6r"0"nt#r" 7"n"# d"(# &n" "6#r#r"# &nt"("!t ( &

# # r#+& n&&$ d" "n & &(&t#t". To+& &(o o && d&n t& 6 ( ( & K



TEORIA CUNOŞTINŢEI 2GA

! K#nt Bn *&$ !on &d"r' d #(& (: &nt"("!t- "n & &(&t#t"$ !# n !" &Bn # #r' d" or&!" d& ! +&".



," #!" t" d#t"$ 6ro (" # o &"!t&7&t'+&& #d"7'r ( & *t&&n+& &! 6 t" 6r& "# !' do ' o( +&& d 6' ! " #!!"nt #$ # n $ 6"r&or&t#t"#d7#(o#r" # ! no*t&n+"(or do nd&t" 6r&n & (o!&r"# &nt"("!t ( &$ #+' d"do nd&t" 6r&n & (o!&r"# "n & &(&t'+&&: o( +&# r#+&on#B& t" 6&r& t'. C"# d&nt & %' "#$ !' nt o &"!t&7" n #& ! no*t&n+"(" !#r"-*or&%&n# Bn &nt"("!t *& Bn !on "!&n+'$ !' *t&&n+# &nd&!#t' ' 6o#d"7'r r&(" !"(" #& !"rt"$ " t" M"t# &0&!#$ &&nd!' #!"# t# " t" &n%*t&&n+' !#r" " 6o#t" d& 6"n # d" "F6"r&"n+# "n & &('5 &#r !"# d" # d%' "#$ !' o &"!t&7&t#t"# ! no*t&n+"(or " nd"#0' totd"# n# 6"

"n & &(&t#t"$ *& Bn !on "!&n+' !' *t&&n+"(" "F6"r& "nt#(" nt &nd&d"7&n' &07or ( !"( #& o%#t$ d#!' n ! &#r &07or ( "F!( &7 #(! no*t&n+"(or.

Intr" #!" t" do ' o( +&&$ n Bn('t r nd 6" n# *& #do6t nd 6" !"#(#(t'$!& !o &n nd -(" Bn ! &6 #" tr 6" # ndo ' " !(# & &!' o( +&# (K#nt.,"ntr K#nt$ !# *& 6"ntr Bn#&nt#*&& '&$ "n & &(&t#t"# r' n" ' !onBntr n o! d" & 6r" &&5 Bntr o (t&6(&!&t#t" d" t'r& &"!t&7"$ d&ntr#t' Bn !on*t&&n+' "# ! *t&%' n ro(. S"n & &(&t#t"# 6ro7o#!' n!+& n

n& &!#r" #(" !on*t&&n+"&$ n& &!#r"# d" & #%&n#+&" *& n&#6!r!"6(&"$ *& 6r&n & (o!&r"# #!" tor# " tr !t r"#0' Bn do ' or " d"&nt &+&"apriori, Bn t& 6 *& Bn 6#+& . A!" t"# &&ndapriori nt *& or " #("&nt"("!t ( & *& # t "( "n & &(&t#t"# B*& # &% r' ("%'t r# # &n#&

n!+& n&(" &nt"("!t ( & *& 6r&n r #r" 6' tr"#0'$ o 6o#rt' d" ! & ' 6o &"!t&7&t#t"# r"0"r7#t' # tr#!+& n&(or. E t" o &no7#+&" or&%&n#Bn+"("%"r"# "n & &(&t'+&& *& !#r"$ 6r"! 7o 7"d"# Bnd#t'$ Bn(" n"*K#nt &"*&r"# d&n d& &! (t'+&("$ ! !#r" #7 " "r' d" ( 6t#t &(o o && d n (. S"n & &(&t#t"#$ &ntrod ' Bn or "(" #6r&or& d" &nt &+&"$ " trBntr o !ond&+&" nd# "nt#(' 6"ntr to#t" ! no*t&n+"("$ &" "(" ! t d# tr#!t". A tr#!+&&(" (&6 &t" d" &nt &+&" nt %o#("$ 0&!" K#nt$ &#

'r' %"n"r#(&0#r"# # tr#!+&"& " t" o#r '. ," t" 7"! & ( d #(& $ "n & & )- &nt"("!t$ " Bnt&nd" o 6 nt" *& Bn!' o 6 nt" d" t ( d" (#r%'. In tot !#0 ( 6r"t"n+& n&(" M"t# &0&!"& d" # t# &(& #d"7'r r&$ 'r' # +&n" "#"F6"r&"n+'$ nt d&r"!t !ontr#0& ". D 6' r&d&!#r"# "n & &(&t'+&& d" 6"

n"& (t&6(&!&t'+& d" ordon#t" 6" 6(#n ( ordon#t #( t& 6 ( & *& #( 6#+7&n" #6o& o &no7#+&" tot #t t d" or&%&n#('$ 6r&n !#r" " or%#n&0"#0' #"F6"r&"n+&& "n & &(" #6(&!#+&# r"% ("(or %' &t" 6r&n # tr#!+&# tr#!+&&(" &nt"("!t ( & *& "F6"-r&"n+# "n & &('$ #r & "F& t nd$ d

n "( d" o6"r#+&" # " 'n'to#r" n "r#+&"& #r&t "t&!"$ ! " #t& (



t& 6 ( &$ !#r" #d !" o#r"! (# #!"(#*& n &tor d#t"(" "n & &(&t'+&# tr#!+&&(" &nt"("!t ( &$ '! nd # t "( 6o & &(' tr"!"r"# d" 6" n 6(#n#(t (. In od ( #!" t# &nt"("!t ( d"7&n" n #!tor !on t&t t&7 #( "F6"r&"n+& N #& n"(" d&ntr" # tr#!+&&(" ( &$ !#r" n nt !on t&t t&7" d" "F6"r&r' n Bn # #r'$ Bn do "n& ( "6#r#t$ 0& #( r#+& n&&$ #7 nd n ro( r"%A(t &ntr"(&$ &nt"("!t ($ Bn d"o " &r" d" r#+& n"$ (+ &t' ! " #t& 6r" #!" tot !" &ntr' Bn or "(" #6r&or& #(" "n & &(&t'+&&$ #d&!' Bnt

(t&6(&!&t#t" "n & &('$ Bn o &"!t" d" *t&&n+'$ d" 6r" !#r" "( #6o& 6o! no*t&n+" ! !#r#!t"r d" #d"7'r.

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ntr ! t o ( !#r" " "F6 n" (# r#0"(" o#r"( & " # (' Bn !ond&+&&(" o &*n &t"5 #dntr" "( *& o#r" n "d& $ !#r" (# ' ' tr"#!' r#0"(" d" !'(d r'$ Bnd#t' !" !ond&+&&(" " &n#d&n ($ Bn!'(0&r"# 6o#t" ' n " #& 6rod !'. A*# " t" ! to#t" # &r #+&&(". In n('n+ &r"# n " t" #d ' Bn !on*t&&n+' Bn ! &6 "F6r" $ &&nd!' "# r"0 (t' d&n #t&tr &tor&(or5 d&n &nton#+&" *& d&n %" t$ #d" "or&. Lo%&!# 6r"t&nd" Bn '$ ' #7"

n('n+ &r"# # &r #+&"&$ Bn#&nt" d" # d"!&d" # 6r# !#r#!t"r ( & "& d" #d"7'r. Ş& (#o%&!"& r' 6 nd & t" #t&0'r&(" d& "r&t"(or *t&&n+" 6"!&#(". =&"!#r" # &r #+&n"& *t&&n+"$ 6r"%'t&t' %#t#$ Bn('n+ &r"# !#r" 7# nd# 7"r#!&t#t"# "&. A &r #+&#&n Bn('n+ &r"# "& ! #d"7'r r&(" =&0&!"&$ d"7&n" n #d"7'r5 ! 6r&n #!""#*& Bn(



TEORIA CUNOŞTINŢEI 2@A

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6r" *t&&n+"(" "F6"r& "nt#(". In 6r& ( !#0$ #7" o o( +&" r#+&o- n#(&Bn #( do&("# !#0$ o o( +&" " 6&r& t'5 *& &n" Bn+"(" Bntr" "("$ o (+

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nt !on tr n*& tot *& ' !on! &d'$ Bn !"(" d&n r '$ (# n&t#t"# d" !r&t"r# #d"7'r ( &. A t "($ Bn 6r& ( r nd$ K#nt. K#nt 6 n" (# #0# & t" (

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#t" #t&!". Cr&t"r& ( #d"7'r ( & 6o#t" & tr# Bn ' *& d" 6#rt"# *"F6"r& "nt#("$ ! & nd 6r" & "(" d"(# #0# & t" ( & &(#n " Bn (o! d" # 6("!# d"(# "7&d"n+# !#t"%or&&(or r#+&on#("$ ' 6d"(# "7&d"n+# d#t"(or "F6"r& "nt#(" *& ' !on &d"r' !#t"%or&&(" r#!# & 6(" d" &n&+&& !o# " 6r&n # tr#!+&" d&n d#t"(" "F6"r&"n#!" t#$ n ! no*t&n+"("$ do nd&t" 6r&n "tod"(" "F6"r& "nt#("$#d"7'r#t" 6" ' r' !" nt tr#d " Bn r#6ort r& r#+&on#("$ !&$ d& 6o! no*t&n+"(" do nd&t" 6r&n "tod"(" r#+&on#(" d"7&n #d"7'r#t" 6" !" "(" " 7"r& &!' 6r&n "F6"r& "nt. o n St #rt M&(($ &(o o!ont&n ' tr#d&+&# ( & o n Lo! " *& D#7&d "$ # #do6t#t #!" t 7"d"# Bn (t r' 6 nd&t ( ' tr#t#t d" Lo%&!'0Sistem de Logică deductivă

şi inductivă, or&%&n#( Bn (& # "n%("0'$ tr#d Bn d& "r&t" (& & ", t" no& Bn ' ' ! & ' $ d 6' 7o&"$ 6r" & "(" d"(# !#r" 6("!' *& 6 n" !# 6r" & '$ ! nd d#t"(" r#+& n&&$ ! nd d#t"(" "F6"r&"n+"& 6 t" #!" #!"# t' ! & #r" d 6' 7o&"$ #t n!& 6ro (" # !r&t"r& ( &!#r" " r"! no#*t" #d"7'r ($ r' n" o 6ro (" ' 'r' o( +& n"5 o > #6or&? ! #r n &-o Ar& tot"($ !'!& ! & #r"# d" 6r" & " #r Bn " n!#0 ( #!" t#$ !' d#t"(" r#+& n&& *& d#t"(" "F6"r&"n+"& 6ot & ( #t"! nd n"("$ ! nd #(t"(" dr"6t !ond&+&& nd# "nt#(" 6"ntr & t" #*t&&n+& &!'. ,"ntr K#nt n #!" Bndo&#(' !' (# or&%&n"# *t&&n+"&R#+& n"#$ 6r&n 6ont#n"&t#t"# "&$ 6 n" Bntr" 'r& "F6"r&"n+"& *&ord&n"# ! no*t&n+"(or. ='r' n!+& n"# n&t'+&& d" #6"rtr#n !"nd"nt#(' n #r & n&!& '!#r 6o & &(' o "F6"r&"n+' *t&&n+&



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&"!t ( o B*& !r"#0' ord&n"# "F6"r&"n+"&$ d#r Bn #!"# t' ordr"%' "*t" *& 6" "( Bn *&Q In #d"7'r. EF6"r&"n+# " t" ordon#t' d" &

6#+& ( & *& # t& 6 ( &$ !#r" nt &nt &+&& #6r&or&$ #d&!' #d#r$ Bn #!"# t' "F6"r&"n+'$ " r"%' "*t" !# o &"!t Bn 6#+& *&

&"!t ( Bn *&$ ! to#t" #n& " t'r&(" ( & !or6or#(" *& &nt"("!ttot#( ( "F6"r&"n+"& !#r" " t" o !r"#+&" !ond&+&on#t' d" &"!t ( Bn *& !r"#tor ($ !#r" # d#t n#*t"r" (# tot#( ( "F6"r&"n+"&Q K#ntd nd -*&

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n!+& n&(or r#+&on#("$ !on!"6 t" !# d"r&7 nd d&ntr o n&t#t" d" tr#n !"nd"nt#('$ !& 6r&ntr n 6ro!" & tor&!$ (#g# !'r & d" '* r#r" &o# "n& d& "r&+& d 6' t& 6 *& (o! *& !'$ 6r&n r #r"$ !r&t"r& ( #d"*& "( !on t&t &t & tor&!"*t" Bn #!ord ! d& "r"n+&"r&(" 6" !#r" (" 6ro "n&r&&$ 6" "6o!" d" ! (t r' *& 6" t&6 r& d" 6o6o#r"3<. E t" &n"F#!t ! nd

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&nt#!t&!"$ Bn '*& ("t ( 6o6or ( & d&n !#r" " t" 6(' 'd&t' % no ( & d" *t&&n+'. Gr#d ( d" d" 7o(t#r" #( (& # ( & d' ' r# 6 n!#r" " 6o#t" r&d&!# %r#d ( d" ! (t r' #( n & 6o6or. N " 6ot % n#d"7'r r&(" G"o "tr&"& #n#(&t&!" Bn (& # ( N"%r&(or ,#6 #*O!"#n&#. =&"!#r" (& ' d" 6o6or B*& #r"$ Bn tr !t r# # &nt#!t&!'$ 6 n' (# o#r" " 6o#t" r&d&!# Bn+"("%"r"# *t&&n+& &!' # 6o6or ( &% nd&r" d&n 6 n!t d" 7"d"r" (o%&!$ ! nd tr"!" d"(# n 6o6or (# #(t ($o%(&nd"*t" Bn ! &6 d& "r&t$ d 6' n#t r# (& && &"!'r &#. C nd" t" d" ord&n" &(o o &!'$ or&%&n#( ( " t" #6ro#6" d" n"r"! no ! t. A




&d""# d&#("!t&!"& d&n &(o o &# %"r #n ( & "%"($ n'o#r'Q TIt#(&# # ( #t n Bn+"(" 5 Bn =r#n+#$ #(t Bn+"(" Bn R &#$ #(t Bn

#6on&# &#r'*&$ #(t Bn+"(" . In &"!#r" +#r'$ &d""# d&#("!t&!"& "tr" &t ' &" "F" 6(& &!#t' *& r"d#t' Bn t"r "n& 0 #(&5 "F" 6(& &t"r "n&& 0 #(& Bn &"!#r" +#r' Bn '5 d 6' n#t r# (& &&$ # ( #t d"o " &t". N to#t" (& &(" nt "%#( d" 6r& &to#r" #+' d" # tr#

&(o o &!" *& *t&&n+& &!". Un"(" nt r" "(". M#& to#t" (" d" ort"nd&n+"(" (or !#r#!t"r& t&!"? E t" &nt"r" #nt$ Bn #!"# t' 6r&7&n+'$ !#r" nt !r& " d& "r&t"(" ( !r'r& &(o o &!" !ont" 6or#n". D 6' 7! (t r#(' # 6o6or ( &$ &d"&("$ Bntr o +#r'$ t"#0' *& &"r !# B o o!" ! !# (or&("$ # tr'( !" ! ( !& "r&! 6" o(t# !"r ( &$ 6"Bn #(t' +#r'$ #!"("#*& &d"& nt Bn*&r#t"$ Bn ! &6 o r $ !# Bnd" on tr#+&" #t" #t&!'. S nt !r&"r& &(o o &!" d&n # !'ror !&t&r" t! ! t"7# & #%&n& 6o"t&!"$ *& nt !r&"r& &(o o &!" d&n # !'r#("%& ! !on7&n%"r&. C"(" d&nt & r"6r"0&nt' Bn &*!#r"# &(o o &!" r"6r"0&nt' o( (or ( Bn 6rod !+&# (&t"r#r' od"rn'. In It#(&#$ d&#("!t

"%"(&#n' # o t #*"0#t' 6" 6(#n ( "t# &0&!"& ( & ,(#to. In =r#n+#$ *#(" Bn R &#$ 6" 6(#n ( 6o(&t&! *& o!&#(5 Bn R &#$ d&#("!t&!#

o t !on!"6 t' ! &#r !# n &n tr "nt r"7o( +&on#r. In #6on&# d&#(""%"(&#n' # o t ("%#t' d" d& ! +&# "F& t"n+"& n"#nt ( &. S6&r&t

!ond 6" &"!#r" 6o6or (# &nt"r6r"t'r& d& "r&t". S nt" $ 6r&n r #r"tot ( d"6#rt" d" t"0# +&n t' d" &(o o && r#+&on#(&*t&$ !' od#t' r

"r# !#t"%or&&(or (o%&!"$ n"-# # &% r#t$ 6" d"6(&n n !r&t"r& 6"ntr ! no#*t"r"# #d"7'r ( &. C#t"%or&&(" (o%&!" t# d"6"nd!#t"%or&&(or %r# #t&!#(" #(" (& &&$ or&! t d" #r" #r & dor&n+# *t&&n+' ' " " #n!&6"0" d" "(". I#r !#t"%or&&(" %r# #t&!#(" t#d"6"nd"n+# d#t"(or &nt &+&"& "n & &(". A7" Bn r#+& n" #!""#

"n & &('$ 6" !#r" o # *& & + r&(" Bn#&nt"# (or$ ! d"o " &r" nr#+& n" d#t"(" ( && "n & &("$ 6r&n & (o!&r"# (& # ( &$ ! & o( r& !r"#t" d 6' &nt"r" "(" ! (t r&& o "n"*t&. C #(t" ! 7&(& # ( #d !" Bn ! 6 ( r#+& n&& no# tr" o ( " #& r"d '$ d" !#!""# 6" !#r"

o #7" Bn#&nt"# & + r&(or5 Bn ! & Bn '$ "( #d !" o ( " ordon&nt"n+&on#(&t#t"# no# tr'$ *& 6" !#r" d"!& o 6 t" #& *or Bn+

t'6 n& 6r&n 6r"7"d"r".

4. ADE ĂRUL LOGIC ŞI CREDINŢELE. ) A! #7" to#t""(" "nt"(" 6"ntr # d# o !on!( 0&" d& ! +&"& no# tr" # 6r# !r&t"




d 6' !#r" " ! no#*t" #d"7'r (.Un !r&t"r& # o( t$ 6r&n !#r" ' ! no#*t" #d"7'r ( #d"!7#t (

"n & &("$ ) # r"#(&t'+&& d"6(&n"$ -) n &ntr' Bn !o 6"t"n+# Lo'-( d"#. Lo%&!# d' n #& !r&t"r& ($ 6otr&7&t ( && !r"#t" 6r&n

(& # ( &5 ( " !on t&t &t' d&n & o( r&(" # tr#!t" *& !#r" 6ro6r& #( &nt"(&%"n+"&. Ad"7'r ( #d"!7#t #!" t"& ( & r"d

ordon#t &nt &+&"& d&n !#r" " t" "Ftr# . Cr&t"r& ( ( & !on &!#r"-1 7"r& &!'. E t" #d"7'r (o%&! # &r #+&# !#r" d 6' 7"r& &!#Bn!or6or#t' n"& & t" #t&0'r& *t&&n+& &!". A!"# t' Bn!or6

& t" #t&0#r"# *t&&n+& &!' #d !" !on #!r#r"# 7"r& &!'r&&. P&n" " t" o !on #!r#r" # #d"7'r ( & # o( t. Ad"7'r r& # o( t"$ d&n 6 n7"d"r" (o%&!$ n " t" d#t ' (" #7" .

," ( n%' #d"7'r ( (o%&!$ !#r" " t" #d"7'r Bn !#dr ( ( && r"d& o( r&(or # tr#!t"$ "F& t' *& #d"7'r ( d" &nt &+&"$ 6r"! #

A!" t# d&n r '$ Bn !on+&n t$ " t" #& 6(&n *& #& #d n!. C" 6o#t 6(&n *& #& #d n! o#r"$ d"! t d r"r"# 6" !#r" o "F6r& ' ! 7&nd& 6"r#t" #(" n"& &&n+" & &t" D#r #d"7'r ( d" &nt &+&" 7"r& &!# d" or&!&n" *& n " 6o#t" Bn!or6or# n"& & t" #t&0'r& *r' n" o 6ro6r&"t#t" &nd&7&d #(' # #!"( &# !#r" (-# & +&t$ 'r' 7#(!&r! (#+&". Ad"7'r ( (o%&! " t" o 7#(o#r"$ d" !&r! (#+&". A!"(# !#r"-B( 6o#t" 7"r& &!# *&-( 6o#t" 6 n" Bn #6(&!#+&" d 6' tr" &n+'. Ad&nt &+&" " t" 6(&n *& #d n!$ d#r &&nd &nd&7&d #( *& n"7"r&"( n 6o#t" "r7& !# #0' 6"ntr 6r"7"d"r". , t"r"# ( & t' Bn ' Bn r'd'!&&nt &t&7' d" !#r" " t" 6r&n . E( " t" o !r"d&n+'$ &#r n 6ro6r& 0&

A*# *& " t" d"n &t d" o &!"&.Ad"7'r ( (o%&! " t" # &r #+&# n & r#6ort Bntr" no+& n& # tr#

!#r" " 6o#t" 7"r& &!# d" or&!&n"$ *& !#r" #!" 6#rt" d&ntr o & t*t&&n+& &!'$ 6" ! nd !r"d&n+# " t" # &r #+&# &07orBt' d&r"!t

d&n "F6"r&"n+# &nt &+&"& n & &nd&7&d5 # &r #+&" !#r" n "d" or&!&n"$ !& n #& B 6'rt'*& d" #!"& ! o "F6"r&"n+' d" #!""#*& n#t

Ad"7'r ( (o%&! #r" %r#d ( d" !"rt&t d&n"$ 6" !#r" B( #r" & t" #t&*t&&n+& &!' d&n !#r" #!" 6#rt". C ! t *t&&n+"(" B*& Bnt'r" ! &(or 6r&n 6"r "!+&on#r"# "tod"(or d" !"r!"t#r" *& d" 7"r& &!#r"$ ! #t! no*t&n+"(" (or do nd" ! n %r#d #& Bn#(t d" !"rt&t d&n". C"rt&t! no*t&n+"(or d" M"!#n&!' " t" # t "( 6"r&o#r' !"rt&t d&n! no*t&n+"(or d" P&o(o%&". ," %r#d ( d" !"rt&t d&n" #7" #6o& %r#d 6r"7"d"r". In 6r#!t&!'$ d" !"(" #& (t" or&$ !"rt&t d&n"# *& 6r"7"d"r

" &# $ n# Bn (o! ( #(t"&#. C" tr" &" ' 0&!" Bn ' d" !"rt&t d




!r"d&n+"(or Ar" *& #!"# t' !"rt&t d&n" %r#d5 *& d#!' #r"$ d 6' !" ' r 6 t" t# &(&

R' 6 n ( n " t" *or d" d#t. Cr"d&n+#$ 6r"! # #& 6"F6r& ' o r"#(&t#t" ! (t #& 6(&n' *& #& #d n!'$ d" ! o "F6r&#d"7'r ( *t&&n+& &!. E# " 6r"t&nd" # & #d"!7#t' Bn od &n!"r (#"F6"r&"n+' &nt &t&7' # o ( &5 n (# o "F6"r&"n+' r"d '$ d"!& o#r

t&(#t'$ 6r&n d&7"r " &nt"n+&on#(&t'+& ! (t r#("$ #*# ! " t" #*t&&n+& &!. "r& &!#r"# "& n ! no#*t" "tod' *t&&n+& &!': "tod# 6r" 6 n" o d& 6 n"r" # "F6"r&"n+"& Bntr o ord&n" 7o&t'$ #d&!' "F6"r&"n+' #rt& &!&#('. Cr"d&n+# n " 7"r& &!'$ !& " tr'&"*t" d"

&n% r5 " tr'&"*t" d" #& (+& o# "n& Bn #!"(#*& t& 65 " tr'&"n n #& d" #& (+& o# "n& Bn #!"(#*& t& 6$ d#r *& d" (t" %"d" o# "n&$ !!" &75 o#r" #6t ( !' " tr'&"*t"$ n " t" Bn d"# n td" !"rt&t d&n"

A&!& n" %' & Bn#&nt"# #r"& 6ro (" " # !"rt&t d&n"&$ 6" !#r!r"d&n+"(" ("%#t" d" "n ( "F& t"n+"& o ( & 6" 6' nt *& !#r" 6r

or#(# *& r"(&%&# o ( &. =#6t"(" #t"r&#(" #(" n#t r&&$ 6r"! *&7&"+&& #n& #(" 6ot & "F6(&!#t" 'r' # tor ( !r"d&n+"(or orr"(&%&o# ". EF6(&!#r"# (or " 6o#t" d# Bntr n & t" tr&!t *t&&nn&!& n # " t"! ! Bn+"("%"r"# ro t ( & (or 6" ( ". EF6(&!#r"# "F&(or n & 6(&!' n"7o&# or#("& *& # r"(&%&"&. EF6(&!#r"# "F& t"n+Bn ' & 6(&!' #!"# t' n"7o&". O ( #r" o "F& t"n+'$ n n #& Bn #6t$Bn Bn+"("%"r". E( & t" n"7o&# ' *t&" 6"ntr !" "F& t' 6" ( ". A!"#n"7o&" #!" d&n "( o &&n+' or#(' *& r"(&%&o# '.



35’

Cr"d&n+"(" or#(" *& r"(&%&o# " &07orB !$ ! #(t" ! 7&nt"$ d&ntr n ond #d n!$ d#!' n ! &#r #& #d n! d"! t " t" #!"(# #( *t&&n+"&. C"rt&t d&n"# (ord& "r&t' d" #!""# 6" !#r" o #r" #d"7'r ( (o%&!$ d#r "# " t" tot #*# d" n#t r#('o ( &$ *& " t" 6"ntr d" 7o(t#r"# ! (t r&& o "n"*t&$ tot #*# d" nor #t&7' !#!""# # #d"7'r ( & (o%&!. 4@ 43L E C Ţ I A WL-#

8. UNITATEA ŞTIINŢEI. ) In 6ro (" # n&t'+&& *t&&n+"&$ r"%' &(t" d&n ! " t& n&(" d& ! t#t" 6 n' #!&$ &&nd!' 6ro (" # n&t'+&& *t&

" t" 6ro (" # !"ntr#(' Bn T"or&# C no*t&n+"&. D" o( +&on#r"# "& d"6&nd"o( +&on#r"# (tor #(tor 6ro (" " !#r" t# Bn ("%'t r' ! n#t r# *&7#(# &(&t#t"# #d"7'r ( &. D#!' *t&&n+#$ #d&!' # #d"7'r r&(or Bn7'+#t" B

*!o#(' *& #6(&!#t" Bn 7&#+# 6r#!t&!'$" t" n&t#r' Bn "tod"(" "&$ #t n!&r "#0' d"(# &n"$ !' #!"&#*& n&t#t" o 7o %' & Bn #n#(&0# &"!'r & #d"7'

Bn 6#rt": 7o %' & 6" t" tot n 6ro!" %"n"t&! n&t#r *& n !r&t"r& n&t#r d7#(or& &!#r". D#!'$ d& 6otr&7'$ *t&&n+# n !on t&t &" o n&t#t"$ #t

r "#0' d"(# &n"$ !' #d"7'r r&(" "& 7&n d&n or&%&n& d& "r&t" *& 7#(or& &!#t"$ d 6' !r&t"r&& d& "r&t". ,ro (" # Bn '*&$ d#!' Lo%&!# " t" n

4@1) #ceas " 'n re&are şi o pune ân"ru% me a$i*ician român 0. Noica, 'ndiser a ia sa de doc ora , in i u%a "/ "chi'5 %entru istoria lui $um c cu %utin'5 ce&anou. (Bucureş i, 19G=).

) 3er6ard ;e6mann, Kants achlasswerk und die Kritik der 3rteilskra)t (1939) , p. 8@.

s) Konrad I.oren*, Kants Lehre &om A%riorischen im Lichte gegenw5rliger *iologie. (B%" er$iir deu sc6e +6i%osop6ie, Bând 1@, p. 9@).

43 #rno%d 3o&%en, Der 4ensch. "eine atur und seine "tellung in der <elt (1940) 0. 5"du%escu ?o ru, A%riorism, &oca'ie 0i 0tiin'5 (5e is a de :iioso$ie, oi.HH I, Ianuarie 19G1).>) 3eorg Fe6mid 5o6r, 4utter-"%rache. !om Amt der "%rache eider !olk- werdung, 19AA

:riedric6 Kain*, Ps#chologie der "%rache, oi. I, 19G1 I\. <eis &erger, 4utlers%rache u.Geistes ildung, 1929.



35’

n 6o#t" & d"! t n#$ # 6ot & #& (t" Lo%&!&$ #*# 6r"! # *+&n t d" n&& "tno(o%&$ Bn r # t d&&(or '! t" # 6r# "nt#(&

6o6o#r"(or 6r& &t&7"$ tot Bn ("%'t r' ! 6ro (" # n&t'+&& *t&&n+"&$ 6o#to( +&on#t'5 !'!& n&t#t"# Lo%&!"& *& n&t#t"# Şt&&n+"&$ d"*& n "

"F#!t n# #(t"&#$ # tot *& #6ro#6" #!"&#*& "Ft"n & n". Un# 6r" 6 n" 6"!"#(#(t'. N 6o#t" & o n&t#t" d" (o%&!'$ 'r' ' &" d#t' o n&t#t" d" *t&&n+'*& tot #*#$ o n&t#t" d" *t&&n+'$ 'r' o n&t#t" d" Lo%&!'c<.

So( +&on#r"# #!" t"& #r& 6ro (" " # o t r 'r&t'-$ d"(# Bn!"6 t (d" 7o(t'r&& &(o o &"& " ro6"n"$ 'r' ' &" Bn ' %' &t' d" &n&t&7 n&# t'0&. E# " "n+&n" Bntr n 6ro7&0or#t$ 6" !#r" (+& &(o o & n 7or d"!(#r" 6" #+'$ !& !# t' '-( # ! nd' Bn od ! t #& "*t"* %&t. A!" t 6ro7&0or#t d' (o! (# !"(" #& !ontro7"r #t" t"or&& #(" &(o o &"&. D" 6"

r # ( &$ #7" d& ! +&# d&ntr" r#+&on#(& $ *& " 6&r& 5 d&ntr" r"#(no &n#(& 5 d&ntr" do% #t& *& r"(#t&7& 5 d&ntr" tr#n !"nd"nt & #n"nt5 d&ntr" (o%&!& *& 6 & o(o%& $ "t!.$ !#r" # "n&n+' '

r*"# !' 7r"od#t'$ Bntr ! t #r% "nt" %' "*t" &"!#r" d&ntr" #!" t"t"or&&$ 6" ! t' 7r" " 6ro #r"# n&t'+&& *t&&n+"& n " t" d" &n&t&7'. N

o( +&on#r" !#r" ' #d !' d 6' &n" !on "!&n+" #t t d" %r"("$ d"!#d !" #!""# # 6ro (" "& d#!' *t&&n+# " t" n&t#r'$ # n . E# !on t&t &"r' !r !"# d&n !#r" 6orn" ! 6r&n!&6#("(" d&r"!+&& d" !"r!"t#r" Bn ! 6 ((o%&!"& !ont& 6or#n".

,ro7&0or#t ($ Bn !#r" " "n+&n" o( +&on#r"# 6ro (" "&$ d#!' *t&&n+" t" n&t#r' # n $ " t" d#tor&t # &% &t'+&& d" Bn+"(" Bn !#r" !on!"6 +& Bn '*& t"r "n&& 6ro (" "&. Un&t#t"# *t&&n+"& 6o#t" & Bn+"(do ' "( r&. ,o#t" & Bn+"("# ' !# n&t#t" # #!t"(or &nt#("$ 6r&n & (o!&r"!'ror# " # n%" (# ! no*t&n+" *t&&n+& &!" *& Bn #!" t !#0 n&t#t"# #!""# !" &(o o && n " ! d" o &!"& !#t"%or&# n&t'+&& r#+&on# "nt



35’

d" #(t' 6#rt"$ "# 6o#t" & Bn+"("# ' !# o n&t#t" !on t&t &t' d&n d#t"o &"!t&7" 2" "n+" *& r"(#+&& ont&!"< !#r" "F& t' Bn # #r' d" &nto "n"# !' *& " & 6 n #!" t"&# 6r&n &nt &+&& d&r"!t"$ # "7&d"n"#t&n " d" r"(#t&7&t#t"# &nd&7&d #(&t'+&& 6 & o(o%&!"5 *& Bn #

n&t#t"# " t" d" ord&n" tr#n !"nd"nt'$ !on nd nd - " ! n&t#t"#n&7"r ( &. A!"# t# d" # do # n&t#t" d"6'*"*t" r#0# d" "Ft"n & n" #

r#+&on# "nt ( & *& # 6r# "& # &r #+&& !#t"%or&!" n " 6ot Un&7"r ( 6o#t" & n !o o n&t#r *& 6o#t" & n #o 'r' n&t#t"$ Bn! t d#t"(" !#r"-1 !on t&t " nt ! "F& t"n+# (or d" &n". In #!"# t' n&t#t"# n&7"r ( &$ 6" !#r" n o 6 t" # &r #$ &ntr' d#t" d" n#t r' #t"r&#('$ 6r"! *& d#t" d" n#t r' &d"#('$ !'!& or "(" *& r"(#+&&(" &d"#(" 6ot & tot#*# d" tr#n !"nd"nt" &n+&& o "n"*t&$ !# *& !or6 r&(" #t"r&#(". ,r&n

r #r"$ *t&&n+# !#r" #r ! 6r&nd" ! no*t&n+"$ !" o%(&nd" ! d&r"!t d#t"(" !!#r#!t"r ont&!$ 6o#t" ' &" *& 6o#t" ' n &" n&t#r'5 &(o o ( 6o#t

+&n" tot #*# d" &n" n&t#t"# !# *& 6( r#(&t#t"# d#t ( & ont&!. C to#(t &ntr"(& " Bnt 6(' ! Bn+"(" ( d" !#t"%or&" # n&t'+&& #!t"(or d&!on*t&&n+'. ='! nd -1 ' d"6&nd' d". !ond&+&&(" Bn !#r" " d" '* r'r#+&on# "nt ( *& Bntr ! t n 6 t" !on!"6" #!" t r#+&on# "nt d"! t !#n&t#r$ *t&&n+# d"7&n" n&t#r'. Ad&!'$ #& 6o6 (#r "F6r& #t: d#!'! no*t&n+"(" *t&&n+"&$ nt & 6(" & o( r& !#r" "r7" ! !# &n tr "or&"nt#r"# 7&"+&& o "n"*t&$ #t n!& n&t#t"# " t" o !ond&+&" nd# "nt#*t&&n+"&$ &&nd!' o *t&&n+' 'r' n&t#t" n #r 6 t"# "r7& 6"ntr or&"nt##r & #& ! r nd n (" t" 6"ntr o#rt# o ( &. D#!'$ d& 6otr&7'$! no*t&n+"(" *t&&n+& &!" nt o " #n#+&" d&r"!t' # r"#(&t'+&& ont&!"$ !& 6 n" &n+&&$ n"r' n nd #!" t"&# d"! t (& "rt#t"# d" # (" #6(&!# #n $ d 6' &nt"r" "("$ 7&"+&& 6r#!t&!"$ #t n!& n&t#t"# nor #t#r& ! no*t&" t" 6"ntr o n & 6(" d"0&d"r#t$ # n &d"#($ &#r n o # &r #+&



35’

do7"d&t'. No&$ o# "n&&$$ nt" !on t&t &+& Bn #*# "($ !' n 6 t"r#+&on#$ d"! t ("% nd (t&6(&!&t#t"# ! no*t&n+"(or d" n&t#t"5 #!"# t# Bn " n"#0' Bn '$ !' o &nt" 6r#o "n"# !'$ (& "r' d" #!"# t'Bnd#tor&r"$ ' n 6o#t' ! no#*t" Bn 6"r 6"!t&7# 6( r#(& t'#<.

A!"# t' # &% &t#t" d" Bn+"(" Bn or (#r"# n&t'+&& *t&&n+"& !# 0# !' 6ro (" # no# tr' n *&-# %' &t 6 n' #! o o( +&on#r"d" &n&t&7'. Tr"!"r"# d"(# n Bn+"(" (# #(t ($ '!"# !# o( +&on#r"# #0#t 6" n Bn+"(" ' &" r' t rn#t' 6r&n o #r% "nt#r" #0#t' 6" !"('(#(tBn+"(" . ,ro7&0or#t ( # r"0 (t#t d&n # " t"! ( !ont&n #( #d"7'r ( &"(# or#t d&n "F6"r&"n+'$ ! #d"7'r ( &nt &t$ # & 6 6r&n #r't#r"#ont&! ( &. C nd n ($ ! nd #(t ( # '! t ' Bn!(&n" #(#n+# Bn o( +&on#

r 'r&t' d" &(o o . I0 t"# ' " & 6 n' #d"7'r ( "(# or#t d""F6"r&"n+'$ #t n!& n&t#t"# *t&&n+"& "r# # &r #t'$ !# o !on "!&n+' # n&r#+&on# "nt ( &$ d#r *t&&n+#$ Bn !#0 ( #!" t#$ "r# r"(#t&7'$ &&nd!' "

' r# "F6"r&"n+&& o ( &5 &0 t"#$ d& 6otr&7'$ ' " & 6 n' #d"7'ront&! ( &$ #t n!& n&t#t"# *t&&n+"& "r# !o 6ro & '$ Bn ! & #d"7'r"& "r# d" 7#(o#r" # o( t'. A t "( & tor&! ( 6ro (" "& no# tr" # !on & t#Bntr o 7"*n&!' 6"nd (#r" Bntr" " 6&r& ( r"(#t&7& t$ d" o 6#rt"$ *do% #t& ( # o( t d" !"#(#(t' 6#rt"$ Bn!"6 t ( #!" t"& 6"nd ('r&d#t"#0' d"(# ,(#to. ,(#to " t" ! &#r 6r& ( &(o o $ !#r"-*& d' "# # !'# "(" #d"7'r r&$ d"*& d" or&%&n' d& "r&t'$ 6ot & d"o6otr&7' +&n

&(o o &!. M (t&6(&!&t#t"# d#t"(or 7"n&t" 6r&n & + r&$ 6r"( !r#tr#+&on# "nt$ d !" (# #d"7'r r& or#("$ ! So!r#t" # 6ro #t-o Bnd"# n $ &&nd!' 6r&n r#+&on# "nt (t&6( ( "n & &( " t" Bn(o! &# tr#!+&# n&t#r' *& ! #!"# t# " t" d#t' 6r& # t" "(&" # ! no*t&n+"&#d"7'r#t"5 d#r (# #!" t #d"7'r$ !o d&n "F6"r&"n+'$ d 6' ,(#to tr" &"#d'o%#t d" Bnd#t'$ *& Bn!' &n & t"nt #d"7'r ( 6" !#r" &nt"# o "n"# !' B(



35’

&nt &"*t" Bn ( "# &d"&(or$ &07or *& #& o%#t d" ! no*t&n+" ( &nAd"7'r ( "(# or#t d&n (+&-

6(&!&t#t"# d#t"(or "n & &(" t' !ond !"r"# #!" t &# d&n r '5 " t& 6(' !o6&". Ar& tot"($ !#r" !ont&n ' 6" ,(#to$ n r"! no#*t"$ Bntr"

#d"7'r ( "(# or#t d&n d#t"(" & + r&(or *& #d"7'r ( onto(o%&! o d" 6'r+&#t t d" r#d&!#('5 !& "( !# t' ' B &n" onto(o%&! ( Bn "n & &( 6" ! 6o#t"5 ! to#t" #!" t"# d" 6'r+&r"# r' n" *& (# "( *& r' n" tot Bn

#7o#r"# ont&! ( &. In Lo%&!# #$ ont&! ( o! 6' (o! ( 6r&n!&6#(5 "( !r"#tor d" ! no*t&n+"$ #d&!' d" ( &n': " t" #6o6 #nt&!. D 6' #!"*t& do&#r& &(o o & "(&n&$ &nt"# o "n"# !' " !o 6#r' ! o #r ' !" t' ' 6r&nd' 6r&n r"0on#n+' #d"7'r r&("$ Bn !#r" "# " !#(d'5 *& n " t"$ d 6! !r"d " 6&r&*t&&$ n (# or#tor Bn !#r" " 6(' 'd" ! 6r&n o6"r#+&

!!" &7"$ d#t"(" ! & 'to#r" #(" "n & &(&t'+&& Bn d#t" t# &(7#(o#r" d" #d"7'r. ,"ntr Ar& tot"($ !# *& 6"ntr ,(#to$ &07or ( 6r&n!&6#( #*t&&n+"& t' d&n!o(o d" !on*t&&n+# o ( & *& d"!& *t&&n+# n " t" 6o ( &. D#!' *t&&n+# " t" n&t#r' # n $ #!"# t# d"6&nd"$ n d" r#+&o "n"# !'$ !& d" r#+& n"# !#r" ! r- "*t" n&7"r ( Bntr"%. D#!'

n&7"r ( " t" n !o o *& n n #o 5 d#!' 6" t" "( " t" n &n%D n"0" *& n #& (+&$ #t n!& *& *t&&n+# &n+&& o "n"*t&$ !& 6(' r"0on#n+' # !o o ( &$ 7# & n&t#r'. ,ro # d" &n&t&7' # #!"n&t'+&$ Bn or&!" !#0$ n o 7# 6rod !" (o%&!# o "n"# !'. E# " 7# & 6 n

d&n # #r'$ #*# ! " & 6 n to#t" r"#(&t'+&(" 6r#o "n"*t&. [# & o 6ro 6r&n !r"d&n+'$ &#r n 6r&n r#+&on# "nt (o%&!.

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35’

"# r#+& n"# ( & D n"0" $ " t" n&t#r'. =&(o o && !r"*t&n&$ ( #r' *t&Ar& tot"( !# &&nd !or" 6 n0'to#r" #!" t"& !"r&n+" *& " %r' &r' # o tBn "r7&!& ( !r"d&n+"&.



,ro (" # d"7"n& Bn ' d" #!t #(&t#t"$ d" Bnd#t' !" *t&&n+# ( & Ar& totd&n Bn!r"d"r"# !"-& " " #!ord#t'. C'!& *t&&n+# ( & Ar& tot"( B*Bn!r"d"r"# (+ &t' 6o t (#t"(or #(" onto(o%&!"$ &#r n #!ord ("F6"r&"n+#. D" Bnd#t' !" 6r&n !"r!"t'r&(" "F6"r& "nt#(" " 6 t r' t##d"7'r r& no&$ *t&&n+# ( & Ar& tot"( # n " # & o!ot&t' !# &d"!& 6 ' d& ! +&"&$ #('t r& d" to#t" tr#d&+&&(". In "( ( #!"

&(o o ( D" !#rt! $ B 6r" n'! to+& o# "n&& d" *t&&n+' "F6"r&Bn!"6 t ( t& 6 r&(or od"rn". Şt&&n+#$ d 6' D" !#rt" $ n " 6o#t" tr#d&+&"$ !#r" 6o#t" or&! nd & 6 ' (# Bndo&#('$ !& 6" "7&d"n+% nd&r"$ &&nd!' n #& #!"# t' "7&d"n+' # &% r' n&t#t"# d" !rd" !o6"r&r"# #d"7'r ( &. D" !#rt" n " o6r"*t" Bn ' #!&. E( n'0 "*

t# &(&r"# n"& "tod" n&7"r #("$ 7#(# &(' 6"ntr tot "( ( d" #dE7&d"n+# d#t' d" % nd&r" n tr" &" ' " 'r%&n"# !' (# n#d"7'r r&(or onto(o%&!"$ !& *& (# nd#r"# !"(or "F6"r& "nt#("$ !'!&#t n!& n&t#t"# *t&&n+"& " t" # &% r#t' 6" d"6(&n. C 6 n"r"# #! 6ro (" "$ D" !#rt" B*& "r&t' t&t( ( d" 6'r&nt" #( &(o o &"&

&&nd!' d 6' "($ to+& &(o o && !#r& B& r "#0'$ B( !ont&n ': n&1$ #(+&& !o 6("t nd -1$ to+& #6ro#6" 'r' "F!"6+&"$ #7 nd #!"&#*&!# *& "( *& #n ": ' %' "# !' "tod# n&7"r #('$ d 6' !#r" &nto "n"# !' # n%" (# ! no#*t"r"# #d"7'r ( & d"6(&n$ "F6"r& "nt#onto(o%&!.



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! no ! t' Bn & tor&# &(o o &"&$ d"n &r"# d" r#+&o- Bn#(& (*& !on & t' Bn %"n"r#(&0#r"# "tod"& 6r&n !#r" # o t !r"#t' 2tot dD" !#rt" < %"o "tr&# #n#(&t&!'. G nd&r"#$ 6r& &n&t' 6" r#6or!#nt&t#t&7"$ 6r&n d" '* r#r"# "& !ont&n ' *& n& or '$ # n%" (# #d"7%"o "tr&!"$ 'r' # #& +&n" "# # d" !on &% r#+&# 6#+&#('5 "# !r"#d"7'r ($ 'r' # #7"# n"7o&" d" n 6ort "Ft"r&or3<. G"n"r#(&0 nd #!"# t'

"tod'$ 6" t" to#t" ! 6 r&(" d" *t&&n+"$ D" !#rt" # n%" (# t"or&# !r#+& n"# o "n"# !' d"7&n" n o!#r d" &( &n#r"$ 6r&n 6ro6r&# d" '* r#r". EF& t"n+# ( & D n"0" $ 6r"! *& 6ro6r&"t'+&(" n & !%"o "tr&!$ r"&" d&n d" &n&+&&(" !(#r" *& "7&d"nt" 6" !#r" *& (" d' %D n"0" "F& t'$ &&nd!' &d""# d" 6"r "!+& n"$ ! !#r" E( " &d"nt& & 6" !#r" *&-o !r"#0' % nd&r"#$ n " 6o#t" !on!"6" d"! t ("%#t' d" "F& t"n+'.D" !#rt" r 'r"*t"$ ! #(t" ! 7&nt"$ ' t# &("# !' o 6 nt" d" ("%'t r'Bntr" onto(o%&! *& r"(#t&7 ( "F6"r& "nt#( 6" #0# ( &n"& &07orBt"

&*!#r"# Bn '*& # % nd&r&&. Ş& Bn!r"d"r"# Bn #!"# t' "tod' r#+&on#(&(# d n ( #*# d" #r"$ !' # 6 t t ' !r&"$ Bn 6#rt"# &n#(' # !r&"r&&

Discours de la methode %our ien conduire sa raison et chercher la &erite dans (es "ciences 2 n t&t( !#r" 6r&n &n" ! &#r 7or "*t" Bn d" t (<$ r 'to#r"("! 7&nt":> D 6' !" # #r't#t !#r" nt ("%&(" n#t r&& *& #0 nd - &#r% "nt"(" 6" n&!& n #(t 6r&n!&6& $ Bn # #r' d" #!"( #( 6"r "!+& n&& &# ( & D n"0" $ # !' t#t ' d" on tr"0 !' to#t" #!" t" ("%& nt #*# d""7&d"nt"$ !' Bn *& D n"0" $ d#!' #r & ' !r"&"0" d&n no #(t" ( &$

#r 6 t"# (&6 & d" "(" ?4<. Ad&!'$ ! &#r d#!' #r & #& (t" ( &$ !r"#t" d"D n"0" $ ("%&(" (or #r #!" 6#rt" d&n #!"&#*& *t&&n+'. Şt&&n+# " t" Bn r#+& n"# #n'$ !# *& Bn r#+& n"# d&7&n'.



ONTICUL ŞI EM,IRICUL$ SAU LOGISM ŞI ,SI OLOGISM. ) R#+&on#(& ( "#rt" &#n %' & n 7&% ro #d7"r #r Bn " 6&r& ( &"n%("0& o n Lo! "$ G"or%" P"r "(" *& D#7&d "$ !#r" d" 6'r+&r' d&nno ! no#*t"r"# " 6&r&!' d" !"# onto(o%&!'$ "F6(&! nd 6" !"# d&nt &$ !#

&n% r# n#t r#(' *& !ont" t nd ! d" '7 r*&r" 6" !"# d" # do #. ,"nd (#r"#Bntr" o( +&&("$ ! nd #7or# &(" onto(o%&! ( &$ ! nd #7or# &(" " 6&Bn!"6" d&n no . D" # t' d#t' Bn ' Bntr o or ' ! tot ( no '. D& ! +&#d" !&nd" d" 6" 6(#n ( Bn#(t$ *& n" (o #( M"t# &0&!"& 6"ntr # " d !" 6(#n ( ! no ! t #( "tod"(or *t&&n+& &!". E 6&r&! ( n #& " t" ( #tBn+"(" ( d" > 6'r"r" tr"!'to#r" ?$ d" > 6o & &(&t#t" ?$ #*# ! o &*n &#

&(o o && 6 n' #!&$ !& Bn Bn+"(" ( 6r"!& d" 6 & o(o%&!. o nP"r "(" *& D#7&d " !"r!"t"#0' ! # 'n nt ( n!+& n&(" & + r&(or$ 6r"! *& n!+& n&(" &nt"("!t ( &$ #r#t' 6#rt"# 6".!#r" o # n"(" *& #(t"(# or #r"# ! no*t&n+"(or *& !on! &d$ 6" #0# nor o "r7#+&& !ond "

od *t&&n+& &!$ (# 6r& #t ( 6" !#r"-1 # & + r&(" *& Bn %"n"r" 6 &Bn do nd&r"# ! no*t&n+"(or. C"r!"t'r&(" (or # %' &t$ d 6' "&$ n "ro*!ont&n #tor&$ !#r& # "Ft&n Bn+"(" ( 6 & o(o%&! ( &$ d"(# & +

n!+& n&(" &nt"("!t #("$ (# t&6 ( d" 6"r on#(&t#t" *& d" ! (t r'$ &nt"%# t "( *t&&n+# Bntr" & (o#!"(" d" #d#6t#r" *& d" or&"nt#r" # !on*t&&o "n"*t&. Ont&! ($ (# r nd ( ' $ # tr"! t *& "( 6r&ntr o tr#n or #r"#n#(o#%'. D"(# Bn+"(" ( n" (o $ 6" !#r" &-1 d# "t# &0&!# 7"! " *&t"o(o%&# E7 ( & M"d& $ # # n (# n Bn+"(" $ !#r"-1 #!" ' &" to("r#td" &n&+&&(" M#t" #t&!"&. D 6' !"r!"t'r&(" n & Ed. "r($ d" o 6#rt"#(" ( & D#7&d &( "rt$ d" #(t' 6#rt"$ "( " t" d#t ( #F&o #t&! #( (o%&! ( &d"o " &r" d" 6 & o(o%&!5 " t" #!""# !" n " ("#%' 6r&n or&%&n" &nd&7&d #(&t#t"# &"!t&7' # !on*t&&n+"&$ !& " t" d#t d"#dr"6t ( !on* 6r&ntr o &nt &+&" "Ftr#- &"!t&7'.C #!"# t' tr#n or #r" 6rod '$ #tBn+"(" ( " 6&r&! ( &$ ! t *& Bn Bn+"(" ( ont&! ( &$ n"-# #*t" 6ro (" # n&t'+&& *t&&n+"& ' &" Bn ! *t&%$$ #d&!' ' " #6ro6&o( +&on#r". A*t"6t#r"# no# tr' " t" Bn ' Bn*"(#t'. ,ro (" # n&t'+&& *t&&nn # ! *t&%#t 6r"# (t$ d 6' tr#n or #r"# 6rod ' Bn Bn+"(" ( t"r "n"(or d" " 6&r&! *& ont&!. ,ro7&0or#t ( Bn o( +&on#r"# "&$ 6#r" d& 6otr&7' # #*"0#t 6" o d r#t' #& ( n%'. Lo%& ( *& 6 & o(o%& (5 (o%&#6'r'tor #( ont&! ( & *& 6 & o(o%& ( !# #6'r'tor #( " 6&r&! ( &5 # t'0& Bntr o #t&t d&n" d" 7r'* '*&" #& d r0'$ d" ! "r# od&n&o#r'r#+&on#(& ( !#rt" &#n *& " 6&r& ( ( & o n Lo! "5 &#r #!ord ( Bn 6"ntr # # &r # n&t#t"# *t&&n+"&$ n " 7"d" d"(o!. Ont&! ($ 6" !#!('d"*t" (o%& ($ " t" &nd& "r"nt (# 6ro (" # n&t'+&& *t&&n+"&. =or



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6' tr#t" 6o t (#t"(" &d"nt&t'+&&$ #( !ontr#d&!+&"&$ #( t"r+ ( & "F!(r#+& n"& &!&"nt"$ &&nd!' n #& (+ &t' #!" tor 6o t (#t" ! no*t&07orBt" d&n "( # t' (# !on "r7#r"# *& or&"nt#r"# &nd&7&d #(&t'+&& oIn ont&! Bn '$ #!" t" 6o t (#t" nt d" 6r& o $ Bntr ! t ! no*t&n+"(" &07od&n "( n !"r o #6(&!#+&"5 "(" "F& t' d" &n"$ !# #d"7'r r& d"# 6r# t& 6*& 6#+& ( &$ d"# 6r# &nd&7&d #(&t'+&& o "n"*t&. D#!' ont&! ( " !o

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nt 7"r& &!#t" d 6' r"% (& t#torn&!&t" Bn "tod" !on*t&"nt"$ 6ot & #d



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Ş& #! ' r"0 ' !"(" 6 " #& .



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'r' d" !#r" n 6o#t" & o & t" #t&0#r" d" ! no*t&n+". A!"# t' n&t#t" d"Bn+"("%"r" Bn ' n " t" d#t' #6r&or&$ !& " t" n 6rod & tor&!. M&no "n"# !' # # n ' o #& ' d 6' o ( n%' 6r"%'t&r" ! (t r#('. Un&t#t"# d"Bn+"("%"r"$ 6otr&7&t' o "nt ( & Bn !#r" # o t 6rod ' 2 n o "nt #(! (t r&& " ro6"n"< t# &("*t" r"(#+&&(" d&ntr" ( !r r&$ d 6' #n &t" !#t"%A t'0&$ !#t"%or&&(" nt n"("5 Bn n' 6#rt"$ "n "r#t" d" K#nt Bn *&5 7&&tor 6ot & #(t"("5 Bn tot !#0 ($ 7or & #!"(" d" # t'0& # 6(& &!#t". Or&!#r

& "(" Bn '$#!""# !" " 7# 6' tr# 7# & n&t#t"# (or$ !'!& 'r' #!"# t' n&t#t" n7# & *t&&n+'. Şt&&n+# B*& #r" # &% r#t' !ont&n &t#t"# "& 6r&n n

Bn+"("%"r" !#r"-& t' (# #0'.



Şt&&n+# " t" n&t#r'$ d#r n n&7"r #('. Un&7"r #(' #r 1 & "# n #& d#!' # 6r" 6 n"$ !' Bn n&t#t"# d" Bn+"("%"r"$ d&n !#r" # &07orBt *t&&n+# d" # t

#r & #t&n (t& ( o "nt #( "7o( +&"& !on*t&&n+"& o "n"*t&5 !' Bn #!#t"%or&&(" d"!'+&& 6r#!t&!#t" # t'0&$ n " #& 6ot &n7"nt# #(t"("5 ! #(! 7&nt"$ !' n!+& n&(" d" 6ont#n"&t#t" *& d" n& &!#r" #(" 7&"+&& (

o t & to7&t" od#t' ! 6rod !"r"# % nd&r&& *t&&n+& &!" *& !' 6r&n rd" t&n ( o ( & 6" ( " # o t Bn! "&#t Bn #0# ! (t r&& #(" od"rn".4448L E C Ţ I A WLI-#

44 ) +ro&%ema uni " ii ş iin ei es e urm"ri " cu 'ncordare de $i%oso$ii care conş i ueaşa numi a şcoa%" iene*". rganu% %or de pu&%ici a e es e re is a Erke nntn is(6erausgege&en on 5udo%$ 0arnap und Iians 5eic6en&ac6. ]er%ag, :e%i ?einer,;eip*ig). Zcoa%a iene*" are adep i 'n mai mu% e "ri europene.

2) #supra aces ei separa ii din re condi ii%e ac e%or de conş iin " şi on ic, insis " cudeose&ire $i%oso$u% Nico%ai 7ar mann. (7. Fc6Car*, Deut sc he s#st emat is che

Phil oso%hie . oi. I, 19A1).8) ;eon Brunsc6 icg, Les 2ges de l:int el li ge nce. ; uni ers de %a raison (+aris,19AG), p. 8J urm.

48 0omp. 0. 5. ?o ru, Pu te rea su )l et ea sc5. (Edi ia de$ini i ", p. JJ).@) 0. 5. ?o ru, Elemente de 4e ta )i 1i c5 %e a1a )i to so )iei kant iene. (Edi ia I,

1912. Edi ia II, 1928, Edi ura 0asei Zcoa%e%or, Bucureş i).



TEORIA CUNOŞTINŢEI 285

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,ROPLEMA LOGICEI. )- Bndr"6t'+&r"# 6" !#r" #r #7"#-o *t&&n+#

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o t B 6'rt'*&t *& d" no& Bn ("!+&&(" +&n t" (# Un&7"r &t#t"# d&n P !Ar% "nt#r"# 6" !#r" " 6r& &n' Lo%&!# or #(' o %' & #6ro#6" Bn od!o 6("t r"d#t' Bn!' d"(# Bn!"6 t ( "& Bn !r&"r&(" ( & Ar& tot"($ *& " 6o#r"0 # Bn r 'to#r"(". Ad"7'r ( #d"!7#t r"#(&t'+&&$ #d&!' #!"( "t"rn$ n "d" 7'( &" & + r&(or *& Bn %"n"r" "F6"r&"n+"&$ &&nd!' & +

"F6"r&"n+# Bn %"n"r" n 6r&nd #!""# !" " t" %"n"r#( *& " "n+&#( Bn ( !r r&n #& #!""# !" " t" 6" ' r# &nd&7&d ( & o $ #d&!' 6'r"r&(" &nd&7&d ##d"7'r ( "t"rn B( 6o#t" 6r&nd" r#+& n"# n #&$ &&nd!' #!"# t# *t&" d"o "

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d"o " &r"# d" or&%&n" *& d" #n& " t#r" # r#+& n&& #+' d" r" t ( n!("t"*t&. R#+& n"# #r" d#r ( d" # 6r&nd" d&n ( "# "F6"r&"n+&&$ #!""



TEORIA CUNOŞTINŢEI286

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D n"0"&r&& 6" #!"(#*& 6(#n ! o6"r#+&&(" r#+& n&& E t" #& #6ro#D n"0"&r" o ( ! 6'tr nd"r"# r#+&on#('$ *& n o ( ! o #d n!' & &r" 6"ntr " "n ( ' Bntr" #r" %r"# *& !#r" n %' "*t" r' 6 n (# n&!& n (d&ntr" 6'r&n+&& & "r&!&& !r"*t&n".Ar% "nt#r"# 6" !#r" " 6r& &n' Lo%&!# or #('$ ! &#r ! !o 6("t#r"##d ' d" 6'r&n+&& & "r&!&& !r"*t&n"$ " t" #t#!# &('. E# ! 6r&nd" don"%#t&7"$ n 6o0&t&7". N n" !on7&n%" d" Bndr"6t'+&r"# 6" !#r"o #r"

r#+& n"# d" # # n%" "# &n% r' (# #d"7'r$ !& +&n" ' n" !on7&n%' n #&#(t" n!+& n& ("t"*t&$ Bn # #r' d" "#$ nt *& #& 6 +&n Bndr"6t'+&d"!& 6"ntr # %' & n t" "& d"o " &r&& d&ntr" #d"7'r ( #d"!7#t r"#(&t'+& 6'r"r"# & 6(' 6" ' r# o ( &$ tr" " ' r"! r%" (# "F& t"n+# n"&r#+& n&.

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!#r" d"(# Bn &&n+#r"# "& n # '! t$ n&!& n 6# Bn#&nt"@

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16




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Lo%&!# or #(' #r !on t&t & #& ! r nd n od" t !#6&to( #(

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or #(& ( r#+&on#($ # !"r!"t'r&(" 6r&n "tod" "F6"r& "nt#("



=or #(& ( r#+&on#($ r"!o #nd#t d" Lo%&!# tr#d&+&on#('$ " t" &F#t od#t' 6"ntr totd"# n# &n7#r&# &(. In d" 7o(t#r"# *t&&n+"& "( n *&-# ("%#t nd" n&!&o d" !o6"r&r". ,r&n "( n&!& "ror&(" '!#r n # 6 t t & 7"r& &!#tS&n% r# ( & #6(&!#r" ! r"0 (t#t" 6o0&t&7"$o %' & 6" t"r"n ( r"tor&!"&$ nd"$ ! 6" t" do ' && d" #n& Bn#&nt"$Ar& tot"($ 6r&n & (o!&r"# &(o%& ( & # d"n n+#t o & "(". C"r!" 6r&n "tod" "F6"r& "nt#("$ d& 6otr&7'$ nt 6r& &to#r" d" 6"r "!+&on'r&!ont&n "$ *& # t "( "(" d# 6o & &(&t#t" *t&&n+"& d" #-*& "Ft&nd" (&#6(&!#+&&(or. D#r or&! t d" "Ft&n " 7or & #!" t" (& &t"$ !"r!"t'r&(" *t&&n+7or tr"!" tot *& d&n!o(o d" r"(#t&7&t#t"# 7&"+&& o "n"*t& 6"ntr # # n%"

"r# #d"7'r r&(or "t"rn". D&n !ontr': #6(&!#+&&(" 6r#!t&!"$ !on tr n% *t&&n' &" ! t #& ("%#t' d" o *& d" 7r" "(n&!&# ( &. Ad"7'r r&(" "t"rn" 6r"!#r" +&nt"# &(o o && #nt&!&$ nt d&n n" "r&!&r" 'r' #6(&!#+&& 6" 6'

nt &t r& !r"#t" d" & #%&n#+&# o%#t' # E(&n ( & dorn&! d" &d"#($ #*#"r# *& r#+& n"# !#r" (" "r7"# dr"6t &07or. D" #!""# 6 t" !on! &d"$ !'

6&r&t ( *t&&n+& &! d&n t& 6 ( no tr " t" Bntr o 7'd&t' !ontr#0&!"r" ! d&Lo%&!"& tr#d&+&on#("$ *& " t"$ Bn ! & $ Bntr n d"6(&n #!ord ! d&Lo%&!"& no&$ Bn !#r" or #(& ( #r& tot"(&! " t" Bn(o! &t ! "todo(o%*t&&n+"(or 6"!&#(".

) 6. ie6en, Lehr uch der Logik. (Bonn, 192=) p. 29 şi urm.

2) Imm. Kan , Kr it ik d. r. !ernunHt . orrede *ur *Cei en #usga&e.

3)In cercu% de ma ema icieni, $i%oso$ii grupa i. 'n aşa numi a şcoa%" iene*" şi careau ca organ de pu&%ici a e re is a Erkenntni s ( er%ag :. ?einer) 'nc%in" spreaceas " p"rere.

4) #rno%d 3e6%en, De r 4ensch , se ine a tur und se ine "t el lung in de r <el t.(19G=), p. AG9 şi urm.



>) #rno%d 3e6%en,o%. cit., p. G>A.



TAPLA DE MATERII

,#%&n#

Pr e)a' a ....................... ..........................................................................................5In roducere............................................................................................................ 21

L e c ' i a ( - a

1. e$ini ia ;ogicei . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 212. #de "ruri%e ş iin i$ice.................................................................................... 2A

L e c ' i a (l -a 3. ;ogica, eoria 0unoş in ei*&?e a$i*ica ................................................... 2J4. +si6o%ogia şi ;ogica ........................................,....................................... 2J5. i i*iunea ;ogicei......................................................... 28

; 3I0# 3ENE I0^.................................................................................................... A1 L e c ' i a (( (- a

6. ?en a%i a ea omu%ui primi i . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31

7. 5epre*en area co%ec i " .................................................................................... AA

L e c ' i a (!-a8. 0redin a 'n demoni şi r"-i orie........................................................................ A@9. 0arac eri*area men a%i " ii primi i u%ui. +asi i a e. ispre u% e pe

rien ii .... ................................................................................................................30

L e c ' i a !-a

10. E p%icarea men a%i " ii primi i u%ui . . . . . . . . . . . . . . A8 L e c ' i a !l -a

11. ?en a%i a ea copi%u%ui . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . G= L e c ' i a !l l- a

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12. ?en a%i a e di$eri " dup" se şi dup" ras" . . . . . . . . . . . G213. E o%u ia men a%i " ii. 0erce "ri e perimen a%e......................................... . G2

L e c ' i a !( (( -a

14. Icoana unei epoci. 5e'n ierea recu u%ui. +ro&a -udiciar"...................... G> L e c ' i a (7 -a



iagnos icarea a$irm"ri%or %a mar ori G9Pagina

L e c ' i a 7 -a

16. rgani*area gândirii 'n in ui ie................................................................. @2 L e c ' i a 7 l - a

17.................................................................................................................... ni a ea psi6o%ogicuni a ea %ogic" a conş iin ei.............................................................................. @G_18. #na%ogie 'n re des o% area ş iin ei şi a indus riei ..................................... @@

L e c ' i a 7 l l - a

19. ni a e şi sis ema i*are ş iin i$ic"............................................................. @> L e c ' i a 7 l ( ( - a

20. 3ândirea. oin a şi ;im&a-u%..................................................................... @8 L e c ' i a 7 l !-a

21. 0u in e%e i*o%a e, propo*i ia şi -udeca a %ogic"........................................ >G?E ; 3I# ............................................................................................................ >9

L e c ' i a 7 !-a

22. E%emen u% empiric şi e%emen u% $orma% 'n -udeca "................................. >923. ;ogica $orma%" şi ?e odo%ogia.................................................................. . J2

L e c ' i a 7 ! ( - a24. e$ini ia -udec" ii şi a&s rac ia %ogic"....................................................... J>

L e c ' i a 7 ! ( ( - a

25. 0a egorii%e %ogice................................................................................................ 82 L e c ' i a 7 ! ( ( ( - a

26. 0um 'n e%egem me odo%ogia ş iin e%or............................................................ 8>27. 0e%e rei s "ri 'n e o%u ia oric"rei ş iin e, dup" #. 0om e . . . . 8828. +os u%a e%e ?e odo%ogiei................................................................................... 9=

29. +rincipiu% iden i " ii........................................................................................... 9=30. +rincipiu% con radic iunii şi nega iei................................................................ 9131. +rincipiu% e c%usiunii er iu%ui.......................................................................... 9232. +rincipiu% ra iunii su$icien e ........................................................................... 92

L e c ' i a 7 l 7 -a

33. 0%asi$icarea şi de$ini ia no iuni%or %a &a*a 'mp"r irii me ode%or . . 9@34. ;ogica %ui #ris o e% 'n %eg" ur" cu ?e a$i*ica %ui......................................... 1==

L e c ' i a 77 -a 35. #de "ru% $undamen a% 'n ?e a$i*ica %ui #ris o e%....................................... 1=G





36. Impor an a a&s rac iei i*o%a e 'n ;ogica aris o e%ic"................................... 1=G37. 0on inu u% şi s$era no iunii......................................................................... 1=@

L e c ' i a 77 ( - a

38. radi ia aris o e%ic" 'n ;ogic"........................................................................ 1=J39. No iunea........................................................................................................... 1=J40. 5apor u% de su&sumare................................................................................. 1=841. :e%urimea -udec" i%or 'n ;ogica radi iona%"................................................ 11=42. Fi%ogismu%. Fo$isme%e........................................................................................ 11143. a%oarea Fi%ogismu%ui...................................................................................... 11A

a%oarea ia%ec icei 11G

L e c ' i a 7 7 ( ( - a

44. ?e ode%e e ac e. &iec u% ?a ema icii...............................................

L e c ' i a 7 7 ( ( ( a

45. Fu&s i uirea ca opera ie a ?a ema icii...............................................

46. 0arac eri*area me odei ma ema ice ..................................................

L e c ' i a 7 7 ( ! - a

47. ?a ema ica şi e perien a......................................................................

L e c ' i a 7 7 ! - a

48. 5ea%ismu% ma ema ic.................................................,..........................

L e c ' i a 7 7 ! ( - a

49. &iec u% şi me ode%e ş iin e%or, $i*ico c6imice....................................

L e c ' i a 7 7 ! ( ( - a

50. #&s rac ia i*o%a oare............................................................................

51. #na%ogia şi ipo e*e%e..............................................................................

52. 5egu%e%e cerce "rii e perimen a%e, dup" :r. Bacon şi.F . ?i%%

Pagina



53. e6nica ins rumen e%or de e perien "............................................. `

L e c ' i a 7 7 ! ( ( ( - a

54. Induc iunea şi genera%i*area.....................................P..........................

55. Induc iunea 'n ?a ema ic"..................................................................

56. Induc iunea 'n ş iin e%e $i*ico c6imice.................................................

57. +ro&a&i%i a ea 'n induc iune................................................................

L e c ' i a 7 7 ( 7 - a

58. &iec u% şi me ode%e ş iin e%or na ura%e .....................................`

59. pera iunea de c%asi$icare....................................................................

60. Induc iunea 'n ş iin e%e na ura%e..........................................................

L e c ' i a 7 7 7 - a

61. 0%asi$icarea ar i$icia%" şi na ura%", sau gene ic". ipuri%e . . . L e c ' i a 7 7 7 ( - a

62. &iec u% ş iin e%or mora%e şi socia%e...................................................

L e c ' i a 7 7 7 ( ( - a

63. +ro&%ema %egi%or 'n ş iin e%e mora%e şi socia%e..................................

64. 0oncep ia ma eria%is ".......................................................................

65. 0ri ica concep iei ma eria%is e.......................................

L e c ' i a 7 7 7 ( ( ( - a

66. ;egi%e cau*a%e şi %egi%e is orice ...........................................................

L e c ' i a 7 7 7 ( ! - a

67. 5o%u% indi idua%i " ii 'n ia a su$%e easc"..........................................

L e c ' i a 7 7 7 ! - a

68. Qudec" i%e de a%oare...........................................................................

69. ?e ode%e +si6o%ogiei...................................................................



L e c ' i a 7 7 7 ! ( - a?e oda psi6o%ogic" şi me oda is oric"





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